The nonpartisan Urban Institute publishes studies, reports,
and books on timely topics worthy of public consideration. The views expressed
are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the Urban Institute,
its trustees, or its funders.
About the Series
Assessing the New Federalism is a multi-year Urban Institute project designed
to analyze the devolution of responsibility from the federal government to the
states for health care, income security, employment and training programs, and
social services. Researchers monitor program changes and fiscal developments,
along with changes in family well-being. The project aims to provide timely
nonpartisan information to inform public debate and to help state and local
decisionmakers carry out their new responsibilities more effectively.
Key components of the project include a household
survey, studies of policies in 13 states, and a database with information on
all states and the District of Columbia, available at the Urban
Institute's Web site. This paper is
one in a series of reports on the case studies conducted in the 13 states, home
to half of the nation's population. The 13 states are Alabama, California, Colorado,
Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York,
Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin. Two case studies were conducted in each state,
one focusing on income support and social services, including employment and
training programs, and the other on health programs. These 26 reports describe
the policies and programs in place in the base year of this project, 1996. A
second set of case studies to be prepared in 1998 or 1999 will describe how
states reshape programs and policies in response to increased freedom to design
social welfare and health programs to fit the needs of their low-income populations.
The income support and social services studies look at three broad areas. Basic
income support for low-income families, which includes cash and near-cash programs
such as Aid to Families with Dependent Children and Food Stamps, is one. The
second area includes programs designed to lessen the dependence of families
on government-funded income support, such as education and training programs,
child care, and child support enforcement. Finally, the reports describe what
might be called the last-recourse safety net, which includes child welfare,
homeless programs, and other emergency services.
The health reports describe the entire context of health care provision for
the low-income population. They cover Medicaid and similar programs, state policies
regarding insurance, and the role of public hospitals and public health programs.
In a study of the effects of shifting responsibilities from the federal to
state governments, one must start with an understanding of where states stand.
States have made highly varied decisions about how to structure their programs.
In addition, each state is working within its own context of private-sector
choices and political attitudes toward the role of government. Future components
of Assessing the New Federalism will include studies of the variation
in policy choices made by different states.
Contents
Highlights
of the Report
Introduction
Wisconsin:
A Brief Overview
Population
The
Economic Environment
The Political Landscape
The Budgetary Landscape
Setting
the Social Policy Context
Wisconsin's
Agenda for Serving the Needs of Low-Income Families
Organization
of Services and Administrative Structure
Social Welfare Spending and Coverage
Basic
Income Support
An
Overview of Wisconsin's Income Support Programs
Caseload Size and Trends
Early State Innovations and Waivers
Programs
That Promote Financial Independence
Employment
and Training
Child Care
Child Support
Medicaid and Other Health Insurance
Last-Resort
Safety Net Programs
Child
Welfare
Emergency Services and Housing
Welfare
Reform Plans
The
Planning Process
Eligibility
Employment
Work Supports
Service Delivery
Implementation Chllenges and Issues
Immigrants and Welfare Reform
Conclusion
Notes
Appendix:
List of Interview Sources
Tables
About
the Authors
Highlights of the Report
This report focuses on the baseline conditions of cash assistance and social
services in the state of Wisconsin in 1996 and early 1997. Site visits were
conducted in March and April of 1997, at which time Wisconsin's Temporary Assistance
for Needy Families (TANF) plan, as authorized under the Personal Responsibility
and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), was approved by the
federal government, and the state was preparing to implement its welfare replacement
program, Wisconsin Works (W-2).
State Overview
Wisconsin's 5.1 million citizens have benefited greatly from a consistently
strong economy. Because the state's unemployment rates have been below the national
average for a decade, its residents, including single and married women with
children, are more likely to be employed than are their counterparts in other
states. As might be expected, many of Wisconsin's children and families are
better off than the average American child or familythe state has an overall
poverty rate of 9.9 percent; among children, the poverty rate is 14.4 percent.
Nationally, these figures are 14.3 percent and 21.7 percent, respectively. However,
there are exceptions to the generally strong economic picture. For example,
poverty rates among Asian-American and African-American children living in the
state are quite high. The city of Milwaukee, one of the 50 largest cities in
the country, posted a 38 percent poverty rate for children in 1989. Likewise,
Rusk County, our other study site, reported a high poverty rate among children
in that same yearnearly 21 percent.
In 1997, Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson was in his 12th year as governor
and was running for a fourth term. His administration is widely known for its
efforts to reform the state's welfare system. Additionally, expanding business
development, building prisons, and lowering local school taxes are important
priorities. The Republican governor's influence on the state's policy agenda
has been bolstered by Wisconsin's steady revenue growth, the governor's broad
line-item veto power, and legislative support for his ideas.
Setting the Social Policy Context
During the past decade Wisconsin has emerged as a leader in welfare reform.
A number of pilots and demonstrations were introduced with the intent of supporting
the importance of family, responsibility, and work. In response to an increasing
focus on work, the state reorganized programs for income support, vocational
rehabilitation, unemployment, and employment and training into a single departmentthe
Department of Workforce Development (DWD). Additionally, the state integrated
its employment and training system to provide for a more seamless service delivery
system through local one-stop Job Centers.
Income support programs are administered at the county level, with policy direction
and administrative oversight from the state. Within Wisconsin's 72 counties,
county boards of supervisors are responsible for the structure of the service
delivery system. Employment and training services, on the other hand, are not
county based. Rather, funding for them is channeled through 17 local Service
Delivery Areas; responsibility for local Job Centers falls to Local Collaborative
Planning Teams, which consist of representatives from a variety of employment
and training sectors.
Compared with other states, Wisconsin is relatively generous in funding its
social welfare programs; reductions in expenditures over the last several years
reflect a declining caseload. However, in the state's 1995–97 biennial budget,
the mandatory General Relief program, which provided cash and medical assistance
to low-income single adults, was replaced with an optional county block grant
program. The governor has also attempted to give counties greater flexibility
in deciding how to use Community Aids allocations, which are a mix of state
and federal funds from Title XX (Social Services Block Grant), Title IV (Foster
Care), Title IV-B (Child Welfare), the Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment
Block Grant, and the Community Mental Health Block Grant. Prior to 1995, counties
received 15 specific categorical allocations and a basic allocation. Legislative
changes reduced the number of categorical allocations to four, and shifted the
balance into the basic allocation.
Basic Income Support
In 1996 and early 1997, Wisconsin had four major income support programs. The
largest of these in terms of caseload was the Food Stamp program, with 283,255
individuals participating and an average monthly benefit of $58 per person.
Just under 196,000 households, including welfare recipients who moved into employment
and other low-income families, took advantage of the state's Earned Income Credit
(EIC). Families who qualify for the federal Earned Income Tax Credit receive
a state EIC of between 4 and 43 percent of the federal amount. Supplemental
Security Income (SSI) was the third-largest program, with a caseload of 118,489
and an average monthly benefit of $483. Finally, Wisconsin's Aid to Families
with Dependent Children (AFDC) program served 48,451 families in 1996, with
an average monthly payment of $407. AFDC and Food Stamp caseloads have declined,
the former dramatically, while EIC and SSI participation has grown.
Wisconsin's efforts to reform its AFDC program have garnered much national
attention. Since taking office in 1987, Governor Thompson has initiated more
than 10 welfare reform pilots and demonstrations emphasizing work, family, and
increased responsibility for the individual and the community. Perhaps the best
known of these innovations is the Work Not Welfare (WNW) pilot, implemented
in 1995. WNW was the nation's first time-limited welfare program that placed
a cap on the number of months families could receive assistance. Also in 1995,
Wisconsin received federal waiver approval for two statewide, work-oriented
demonstration projects, Self-Sufficiency First and Pay for Performance. These
initiatives, which were implemented the following year, required "job ready"
AFDC applicants to look for work as a condition of eligibility and stepped up
the requirements of the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training (JOBS) program.
Pay for Performance attempted to increase participation in work activities and
to mirror the world of work by reducing recipients' welfare payments by the
minimum wage for each hour they did not participate in required JOBS activities.
Some observers, particularly those in the advocacy community, have voiced concerns
that Wisconsin's reform efforts are too harsh and too quick to penalize clients.
Supporters of these views point to cases of inappropriate sanctions against
clients, although the state believes that these problems have been resolved.
Programs That Promote Financial Independence
To help promote self-sufficiency, cash assistance programs often need to be
supplemented with employment and training services, subsidized child care, child
support collection assistance, and health insurance coverage.
Employment and Training
As noted earlier, the governor's 1996 reorganization of various income support
and employment and training programs created the Department of Workforce Development
to oversee employment and training programs related to welfare, vocational rehabilitation,
the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), and unemployment compensation. Partnership
for Full Employment embodies Wisconsin's vision for a new employment and training
system. This program seeks to integrate previously fragmented employment and
training programs into a comprehensive and seamless service delivery system
of one-stop employment and training facilities called Job Centers.
Job Centers are located in 17 Service Delivery Areas (SDAs) throughout the
state; each SDA is expected to have a minimum of two centers. Job Centers serve
a wide range of customersboth job seekers and employersnot just those attached
to a particular state or federal program. The centers provide three levels of
services designed to meet the needs of individual clientsself-service, light
level of assistance, and specialized services.
Wisconsin has a long history of providing education and employment and training
services to welfare recipients. Over the years, however, Wisconsin's JOBS program
has focused on work rather than education. In 1991, two-fifths of JOBS participants
were in high school completion or postsecondary education programs. By early
1997, long-term postsecondary education was no longer allowed as a JOBS activity
for most participants. Wisconsin requires single, "able-bodied" Food Stamp participants
to engage in work and training activities through the county Food Stamp Employment
and Training program.
Wisconsin's employment and training system also focuses on youth. The state
was one of the first to receive a grant under the 1994 federal School-to-Work
Opportunities Act to provide students with academic and technical skills for
the jobs of the next century. Wisconsin's Youth Apprenticeship program is a
major component of its school-to-work effort. The program offers high school
students work experience opportunities in major industries to supplement their
academic studies.
Child Care
Hand-in-hand with the state's increased focus on employment for welfare recipients
are efforts to streamline and expand child care services. Wisconsin's ability
to expand the supply of child care is facilitated by federal welfare reform.
The federal move to establish a block grant for child care services will make
it easier for the state to streamline various funding sources for both low-income
and AFDC-related child care. The state received a windfall under TANF because
it implemented the block grant early and because 1996 welfare caseloads were
substantially lower than previous years. These two factors freed up more resources
for child care. In fiscal year (FY) 1997, Wisconsin allocated $158 million to
child care, tripling the previous year's allocation. These additional funds,
coupled with changes to the mechanism by which counties receive them, have been
crucial to the state's ability to eliminate the waiting list for child care
assistance.
Wisconsin provides child care services to low-income families including welfare
recipients through the Department of Workforce Development's Division of Economic
Support, which contracts with counties to administer subsidized child care.
Information about child care resources is provided to parents through 17 child
care resource and referral agencies. However, officials note several problems
at the local level, including delayed payments and late paperwork, that challenge
the state's ability to meet its goal of expanding child care availability.
Head Start is the primary early childhood development program available to
low-income families in Wisconsin. The state does not have an extensive prekindergarten
program.
>Child Support
At the state level, Wisconsin's Department of Workforce Development supervises
Title IV-D of the Social Security Act, which guides the establishment and enforcement
of child support orders. Wisconsin's 72 counties operate the child support system
with the assistance of sheriffs, clerks of the court, and offices of the corporation
counsel or private attorneys. Wisconsin continues to be a national leader in
child support enforcement, both in terms of the number of paternities established
and the amount of child support collected. In 1994, Wisconsin ranked third nationally
for the efficiency with which it collected child support payments. Child support
collection should be further facilitated by a new, automated system that was
implemented in late 1996.
Unlike many other states, Wisconsin serves noncustodial parents. The Children
First program provides work experience, job training, and case management services
to noncustodial parents who are not paying child support. These parents enter
the Children First program through the court system and may face imprisonment
if they do not comply with the program's requirements. A 1993 study found that
Children First was highly successfulsubstantially increasing both average child
support payments and the number of parents paying support.
Medicaid and Other Health Insurance
Wisconsin has one of the most generous Medicaid programs in the country. The
state's Medicaid coverage for low-income families and those associated with
the welfare system goes beyond federal law in its coverage of categories of
recipients and optional health services. Pregnant women and children under the
age of six living on incomes up to 185 percent of the federal poverty level
are covered. In addition, as required by federal law, children born after September
1983 who are living on incomes up to 100 percent of the federal poverty level
are also extended insurance. Medicaid is available to families on AFDC, with
coverage provided for up to 12 months after these families leave welfare for
work. Given this generous program, it is not surprising that Medicaid is Wisconsin's
third-largest budget item.
Some areas of the state also provide General Relief health services to poor,
single adults through an optional county block grant program. In 1995, $67.8
million in state and county funds were used for General Relief services,
80 percent of which went to medical assistance. Through the state's Health
Insurance Risk-Sharing plan, Wisconsin offers coverage to the nonelderly who
are denied coverage or whose coverage has suffered because of an increase in
premiums or a decrease in benefits. Finally, the WisconCare program annually
provides limited primary care services and inpatient maternity care to 1,500
low-income persons.
Last-Resort Safety Net Programs
Child welfare, housing, and emergency services are three resources for families
with serious and immediate needs that cannot be met by financial assistance
alone.
Child Welfare
Counties in Wisconsin are responsible for all child welfare functions except
adoption services. The state's primary role is to administer and oversee federal
funding. This responsibility falls under the purview of the Department of Health
and Family Services, which distributes federal and state monies for child welfare
through Community Aids. Counties are then required to put up a 9.89 percent
match. During the 1980s and early 1990s, counties saw tremendous growth in the
number of reports of abuse and neglect. This trend has reversed itself in many
areas, but variation exists among counties. Milwaukee County continues to have
the largest share of the child welfare caseload.
Historically, some tension has existed between the state and counties regarding
how child welfare services are delivered and, in particular, how services are
financed. Counties argue that Community Aids funds have not kept pace with growing
demands on their systems and that the state is withholding additional federal
revenue. State officials contend that they are not violating any federal regulations
under the current funding structure.
Tensions between the state and Milwaukee County in particular are evident.
In 1993, the American Civil Liberties Union filed suit against Wisconsin and
Milwaukee County on the grounds that the two failed to protect children and
families as required by state and federal law. As a result of this lawsuit,
the state began running Milwaukee's child welfare system in 1998. The takeover
entails a decentralization of Milwaukee's system. The county will be divided
into five regions, with county staff overseeing two regions and private agencies
responsible for the remainder.
Child welfare is also affected by Wisconsin's welfare reform changes. Prior
to W-2, a child living with a grandparent or other relative (called a nonlegally
responsible relative) could receive a child-only grant under the AFDC program.
W-2 disallows this practice; nonlegally responsible relative cases are now referred
to the Kinship Care program. Not only does the Kinship Care program pay less
in benefits, but cases are assessed to determine if children need protective
services and to subject relatives to criminal background checks. This change
in policy reflects the state's belief that these types of cases are inappropriate
for W-2, given the program's emphasis on work.
Emergency Services and Housing
Wisconsin's housing policy is focused on preventing homelessness and moving
people into self-sustaining employment, rather than on proliferating the number
of homeless shelters. The state's Division of Housing within the Department
of Administration is responsible for housing and homeless programs, but its
role is primarily to administer funds. Most of the funding for housing in Wisconsin
comes from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Wisconsin does
supplement federal funds and sponsors its own discrete programs.
State reports indicate that homelessness has increased annually, and at the
time of the Wisconsin site visits, the city of Milwaukee was experiencing serious
overcrowding problems in its homeless shelters. Some advocacy groups attributed
this overcrowding to Wisconsin's welfare reform measures. State officials pointed
out that welfare caseloads were dropping at a rate much greater than the increase
in homelessness. In the state's more rural areas, such as Rusk County, the dispersed
nature of the population makes homeless shelters impractical. In addition to
increased homelessness and the need for more and better public housing, Wisconsin
also has an increasing demand for more traditional emergency services such as
food pantries and meal programs.
Welfare Reform Plans
Wisconsin was the first state to gain federal approval for its TANF plan because
the state had already designed its welfare replacement programWisconsin Works,
or W-2prior to the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation
Act. W-2 builds on the state's 10 years of experience operating welfare reform
demonstrations and pilots. As part of the planning process, the state developed
eight overarching principles for W-2 and held listening sessions with community
stakeholders; still, some community members believe that W-2 reflects state
policymakers' priorities.
As a replacement program, W-2 completely recasts the contract between government
and those seeking aid and thus alters just about every aspect of the old welfare
system. With few exceptions, everyone is expected to participate at some level,
even those with limited work experience. The state designed an employment ladder
intended to correspond to the various levels of job readiness that exist among
the welfare population. Support services are available, but a cash grant is
not guaranteed. W-2 recipients are expected to share in the cost of child care:
the state's child care system imposes copayments that are based on income and
family size. Child support is another important component of W-2. Wisconsin
Works significantly changes the child support system for W-2 clients: Under
the old AFDC system, the government kept all but the first $50 of child support
collected on behalf of AFDC recipients in order to offset the costs of the AFDC
program; W-2 gives clients all of the money collected on their behalf.
One of the most notable aspects of the W-2 program is the state's design for
service delivery. Under the old AFDC system, counties were the de facto providers
of welfare services. W-2 challenged this assumption by requiring counties to
earn the right to deliver services. A handful of counties did not meet the state's
criteria for the "right of first selection," and others declined to run the
program despite having earned the right to do so. In those counties, the delivery
of services was contracted out via an open bidding process. As a result, Wisconsin
has a number of private entities running the W-2 programboth for-profit and
nonprofit organizations. All W-2 providers operate under similar contracts and
are given a fixed amount to serve eligible clients in their service area. They
may profit under these contracts by delivering services for less than the fixed
amount.
Advocates have voiced concern about using profit-oriented contracts to serve
needy families. In particular, they worry that W-2 providers may fail to assist
hard-to-serve clients whose barriers to employment might cut into profit margins.
W-2 agencies are subject to fines for failing to serve eligible families, but
the process was seen by some as potentially arbitrary, since it must be initiated
by the client. Other concerns about implementing W-2 stem from the work-based
focus of the program. Officials in Milwaukee and Rusk Counties were skeptical
about their ability to develop enough community service placements for those
who are not ready for unsubsidized employment. Furthermore, participants may
face more difficulties finding work in areas of the state with high unemployment
and little economic growth (as is the case in Rusk County). Finally, the treatment
of children whose parents receive SSI has been noted as troublesome. Under W-2,
these families receive significantly less income than they did while on AFDC.
Immigrants and Welfare Reform
Wisconsin's noncitizen population is not substantialat 2.1 percent, it is
well below the national average of 6.4 percent. Even so, the state has taken
steps to replace the benefits lost to immigrants as a result of federal welfare
reform. For example, it appropriated $4.6 million for FY 1999 to create a benefits
program for immigrants who lose federal Food Stamp eligibility. In addition
to maintaining TANF and Medicaid eligibility for immigrants who resided in the
United States at the time of PRWORA's passage (August 22, 1996), Wisconsin is
using state funds to provide TANF to immigrants who entered after that date
but are barred from receiving federal benefits for their first five years in
the country.
Introduction
Over the past decade, Wisconsin has emerged as one of the nation's leaders
on welfare reform. Since taking office in 1987, Governor Tommy Thompson has
unveiled a variety of reform initiatives, ranging from efforts to encourage
school attendance among children on welfare to reforms designed to promote work.
The many reforms instituted by the state prior to federal welfare reform in
1996 are grounded in a belief that individuals should be paid only for work
and that families, not government, are primarily responsible for providing for
their own needs.
This report attempts to capture the processes and philosophies that have shaped
the design and implementation of Wisconsin's response to the needs of low-income
families, as well as to consider the direction in which the state plans to move
in the coming years. Of particular interest is the state's implementation of
its welfare replacement program, Wisconsin Works, more commonly known as W-2.
W-2 constitutes Wisconsin's Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) plan
as required under the federal Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation
Act (PRWORA) of 1996. This report focuses on the findings of the Wisconsin case
study, which seeks to provide a broad picture of the state's social safety net
for low-income families with children. It examines the current goals, policies,
practices, organizational structure, funding, and recent changes in a wide variety
of programs serving children and their families. The review covers income support,
employment and training, and child care programs targeted to low-income families.
It also examines how other programs such as child welfare and emergency services
work to assist families in crisis.
Researchers from the Urban Institute, the University of Michigan, and Child
Trends, Inc., visited Wisconsin in March and April of 1997. At the state level,
they conducted interviews with representatives from government, the legislature,
and the advocacy community. To understand how programs impact providers and
program recipients locally, they interviewed representatives from the local
government and nonprofit community in the city of Milwaukee, the largest urban
area in the state. Additionally, because Wisconsin is fairly rural, they visited
Rusk County, which is located in a rural area of northwestern Wisconsin. There
they interviewed county officials and nonprofit service providers.
At the time of the site visit, Wisconsin was gearing up for the implementation
of W-2. While W-2 has received national attention in the media for its innovative
approach to supporting low-income families through work, many of the central
components of the reform were not in place in 1996 and early 1997. Also, the
state was in the process of restructuring its workforce development system.
As a result, services, programs, and policies detailed in this report are those
that existed in early 1997.
This report begins with a discussion of the characteristics of the state in
terms of its population, economic condition, and political environment. It describes
the state's agenda for serving the needs of low-income families, including a
discussion of spending in this area and an overview of the service delivery
structure in the state. Three broad social program areas are discussedsupport
for basic income needs, policies for moving families toward financial independence,
and programs that provide a safety net for families in crisis. The report ends
with a discussion of the Wisconsin Works program and its implications for low-income
families.
Wisconsin: A Brief Overview
This section presents a brief overview of Wisconsin's
population, economy, and political environment as a context for understanding
the social programs that are described in the rest of the report. It describes
the state's political and budgetary landscape, indicating the climate of attitudes
and resources within which state policy is shaped. The discussion highlights
key factors such as the state's strong economy and low poverty rate, the executive
strength of Wisconsin's three-term governor, and the importance of education-related
tax relief. Table 1
synthesizes the information presented in this section.
Population
Wisconsin's population of 5.1 million people is less racially and ethnically
diverse than that of the nation as a whole. Non-Hispanic blacks make up 6.3
percent of the state's population (compared to 12.5 percent for the nation);
Hispanics constitute only 1.7 percent (compared to 10.7 percent for the entire
United States); and noncitizen immigrants account for 2.1 percent of the population
(6.4 percent nationally). The state is also considerably more rural than the
rest of the nation; almost half of its population lives in rural areas, as opposed
to 36.4 percent nationally. Population growth in the state during the 1990s
has been slower (4.7 percent) than growth in the rest of the country (5.6 percent).
Milwaukee is the largest city in Wisconsin, with
an estimated population of 617,000 in 1994.1
(The city's population has been in decline since its 1980 peak of 636,000.)
Milwaukee County (which includes the city of Milwaukee and surrounding suburbs)
remains the most populous county in the state by far. African-Americans made
up 30 percent of the county's population in 1990 and more than three-quarters
of them resided in the city of Milwaukee.2
Most of the state's residents live in southeastern
Wisconsin, which includes Milwaukee County. The areas extending north along
the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers, as well as Dane County, where the state capital,
Madison, is located, are experiencing rapid growth. Rusk County, on the other
hand, is more typical of the counties in the far northern part of the state,
which is more rural and less populated. Rusk County's population in 1996 was
estimated at 15,433.3
Overall, Wisconsin's children and families are
better off than the average child or family in the nation. The teen birthrate
in Wisconsin, 39 per 1,000 women ages 15 through 19, is lower than in most states
and compares favorably with the national rate of 59 per 1,000. Births to unmarried
women, at 27.2 percent in 1994, are again lower than the national average (32.6
percent). In 1994, the state's overall poverty rate was 9.9 percent (14.3 percent
nationally), and 14.4 percent of the state's children lived in households with
incomes below the poverty line (as compared with 21.7 percent nationally). However,
Wisconsin's poverty rate for Asian-American children (48.1 percent) is the highest
in the nation and its rate for African-American children (60 percent) is the
second highest.4
The city of Milwaukee stands in stark contrast
to the generally positive picture regarding poverty among children in Wisconsin.
Of the 50 largest cities in the United States, Milwaukee had the seventh-highest
child poverty rate (38 percent) in 1989.5
Rusk County's child poverty rate for that same year (20.6 percent)6
was higher than the state average. In general, family poverty rates are low
in southeastern Wisconsin, with the exception of Milwaukee, and higher in the
northwest counties where Rusk is located.7
The Economic Environment
Wisconsin's economy is quite strong and has been
for a number of years. The monthly seasonally adjusted unemployment rate at
the time of this study had been lower than the U.S. average for every month
since February 1988, and the state's 1996 unemployment rate of 3.5 percent was
the lowest recorded by the state since 1969.8
The unemployment rate did tick upward during the recession in the early 1990s,
but the state's monthly unemployment rate never exceeded 6.0 percenta rate
substantially below the national peak of 7.8 percent.
Because of the state's sound economy, Wisconsin residents are more likely to
be employed than are residents of other states. This general pattern holds for
women with children45 percent of Wisconsin's mothers with children under age
12 work full-time, and 22.4 percent work part-time. Both of these figures are
higher than the national numbers. In addition, Wisconsin's mothers in both one-parent
and two-parent families are more likely to be working than is the typical U.S.
mother in similar families.
The state's economic strength is due in part
to the diversity of the economy. Historically known as a farming state, or "America's
Dairyland, " Wisconsin also has a significant share of its labor force employed
in manufacturing (23.2 percent in 1995).9
This is almost 50 percent higher than the national figure. Agriculture, including
dairy production, continues to be a top industry in the state, while the trade,
finance, and service sectors have experienced the most growth.10
The Political Landscape
Wisconsin is known as the birthplace of Robert LaFollette's progressive movement,
but it is also the state where the Republican party was given its name. For
more than 10 years, Wisconsin has had a Republican governor and a primarily
Democratic legislature, although in recent years the balance of power has shifted.
The governorship has substantial influence, such
as fairly broad authority to use the line-item veto on appropriation bills,
including the biennial budget. The governor may use the line-item veto to eliminate
words and whole programs in the budget bill. In addition, the governor has the
authority to "write down" budget lines by lowering the amount appropriated for
particular activities. Wisconsin's current governor, Tommy Thompson, has used
this veto power freely. Since taking office, Thompson had issued 1,700 vetoes,
none of which has been overridden during his three terms.11
Governor Thompson was first elected in 1986. Prior to that, he served in the
state assembly for 20 years and was twice elected minority leader. In his first
gubernatorial bid he defeated a Democratic incumbent and won with 52.7 percent
of the vote. He won subsequent elections in 1990 and 1994 by substantially wider
margins. Wisconsin does not impose gubernatorial term limits, and at the time
of this study, Governor Thompson was preparing to run for a fourth term.
Welfare reform has been a cornerstone of Governor Thompson's policy agenda.
The governor's office has initiated several different welfare reform measures
and has taken a hands-on approach to policy development and implementation.
Governor Thompson has been a strong advocate of state block grants for income
support and related programs, particularly in his role as chairman of the National
Governors' Association.
Passage of federal welfare reform in 1996 prompted Wisconsin to move forward
with its plan to replace the state's cash welfare system with a work-based model
called Wisconsin Works. In general, Governor Thompson has spearheaded the development
of W-2 and welfare policy, but the legislature has also played an active role
and in fact, W-2 is an outgrowth of a legislative initiative. In 1993, Democrats
in the legislature introduced and were able to pass Wisconsin Act 99. This bill
called for the end of welfare in Wisconsin by 1999. To the surprise of some,
Governor Thompson signed the bill, vowing to end welfare by 1997 and to replace
it with an entirely new program. Two years later Wisconsin Act 289 was passed,
creating W-2.
W-2, however, reflects the governor's vision of welfare reform. While the Democrats
had a majority in both houses of the legislature from 1975 until 1992, the balance
of power has subsequently shifted back and forth between the two parties. In
the 1992 election, the Republicans won a one-seat majority in the Senate. In
1994, Republicans won both houses for the first time in 25 years. The Democrats
were able to win back the Senate majority in 1996, but only by one seat. By
that time, W-2 had received legislative approval. It is important to note, however,
that W-2 was supported by Democrats and Republicans alike and was passed by
the legislature with virtually no amendments.
The role of nonprofit and nongovernmental groups in developing policy is less
clearly defined. Prior to the development of W-2, several listening sessions
were held around the state to gather opinions about various approaches to an
AFDC replacement program. All those involved in the welfare system were asked
to participate: AFDC recipients, advocacy groups, businesses, county providers,
legislators, and academics. Some in this group, however, felt their input was
not taken into consideration.
Nonprofit service providers, advocacy groups, and local officials have had
some impact in shaping final W-2 regulations. Nevertheless, many in the nongovernment
sector (as well as some Democratic legislators) have serious concerns about
the direction the state is taking for serving low-income families. While supporters
of the state's policies see W-2 and the policy changes preceding it as necessary
steps toward moving families into work and self-sufficiency, others fear the
changes may move more families into poverty and homelessness.
The Budgetary Landscape
Wisconsin's strong economy has produced steady
revenue growth. From 1990–91 through 1995–96, general revenue growth averaged
5.25 percent.12
Biennial revenue growth for 1997–99 was projected to be 5.5 percent in fiscal
year (FY) 1997, 4.6 percent in FY 1998, and 4.8 percent in FY 1999.13
Despite this anticipated growth in revenues, most state agencies have been
required to cut their budgets or to hold spending steady so that more funding
could be directed to the public school system. In order to provide property
tax reliefa longtime fiscal priority for the stateWisconsin has sought to
use state appropriations to fund two-thirds of school costs. As a result of
this commitment, state funding for public schools has risen. There has not,
however, been a similar increase in state funding for other services.
From the viewpoint of the governor's office, school costs and increases in
prison funding along with the state's constitutional requirement for a balanced
budget have depleted the state's financial resources, leaving few funds for
expanding other programs. As a result, departments were asked to submit budgets
with cuts of 5 to 10 percent for the biennium 1995–97 and cuts of 2 percent
for the biennium 1997–99. Most departments were then funded at a reduced level
or at the same level as earlier years.
The final budget for biennium 1997–99, which
should have gone into effect by July 1, 1997, was more than three months late.
However, government operations did not come to a halt because state statutes
allow for the continuation of appropriations at the previous fiscal year's level.
A number of contentious issues caused the budget stalemate, including controversial
proposals to increase gasoline taxes14
and a concern that the budget was being used to legislate local issues.15
The governor signed the final budget on October 11, 1997, after vetoing 152
provisions, including several sections that would have altered W-2. The final
budget held to Wisconsin's commitment to providing property tax relief by increasing
state funding to public schools. Public school funding increased by $239 million
for 1997–98 and $212 million for 1998–99 (above the $6.3 billion appropriated
in biennium 1995–97).
Setting the Social Policy Context
This section describes Wisconsin's philosophical and policy orientation, specifically
with regard to helping low-income families. Following a discussion of policy
commitments, the section outlines the organizational structure of the departments
that provide income support and social service programs and reviews state and
local spending on these programs. This information provides important background
for understanding the structure and approach of the major social welfare programs
in place during 1996 and early 1997.
Wisconsin's Agenda for Serving the Needs of Low-Income
Families
Wisconsin is known throughout the nation as a leader in welfare reform and
is one of the most prolific in terms of the number of welfare experiments conducted.
Beginning in the late 1980s, the state applied for and received many federal
waivers to experiment with various aspects of its welfare program. Throughout
the decade preceding Wisconsin Works, reform efforts emphasized family, personal
responsibility, work, privatization of social services, and the importance of
the community.
Officials note that their experience with each waiver demonstration and pilot
program shaped the state's current vision for reform. Early reforms reflected
the state's view of what was needed to strengthen families and keep them together.
Later reforms embodied the principles of work and self-sufficiency. These reforms
culminated in W-2 (see Welfare Reform Plans in this report).
Along with reforming welfare, Wisconsin has been moving toward an integrated
employment and training system. Through state and local planning efforts and
the use of federal grants, Wisconsin has developed a series of Job Centers as
one-stop employment and training operations that offer a range of services and
programs to job seekers and employers alike. The centers have become models
for other states to follow.
Job Centers will be the main service delivery point for W-2. But more broadly,
they are the primary mechanism through which Wisconsin's vision for a new employment
and training systemthe Partnership for Full Employment (PFE)will become operational.
PFE seeks to integrate previously fragmented employment and training programs
into a comprehensive and seamless delivery system (see Programs that Promote
Financial Independence for a full description of PFE). Together, PFE and
W-2 represent Wisconsin's effort to promote work and provide a variety of support
services to low-income families, regardless of their welfare status.
Organization of Services and Administrative Structure
Changes to policy and service delivery for low-income families in Wisconsin
have been accompanied by a reorganization of the departments that serve these
clients. Before July 1, 1996, the Department of Health and Social Services (DHSS)
oversaw income support programs, including Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC), Food Stamps, and Medicaid; related services such as Job Opportunities
and Basic Skills Training (JOBS) and child care; and child welfare programs.
Most employment and training programs were administered through the Department
of Industry, Labor, and Human Relations (DILHR). In an effort to bring all employment
and training programs into one agency, Governor Thompson created the Department
of Workforce Development (DWD).
Although DWD is a new department, most of its operating divisions were transferred
from DILHR, which then ceased to exist as an agency. The Division of Economic
Support, which oversees AFDC, Food Stamps, JOBS, child care, and child support,
was transferred from DHSS into DWD (as was the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation).
This reorganization coincided with a philosophical shift in program policy.
Income support programs (as well as vocational rehabilitation programs) were
becoming increasingly work oriented, so that organizationally it made sense
to have one department oversee these related programs. DWD, which focuses predominantly
on employment, was the natural choice. Child welfare and Medicaid remained part
of DHSS, which subsequently changed its name to the Department of Health and
Family Services (DHFS).
Wisconsin's service delivery system for income support and social service programs
is administered at the county level, with major policy directives decided by
the state. Prior to W-2, Wisconsin law required that the state contract annually
with the counties for administration of income support programs (AFDC, Food
Stamps, and Medicaid) and for most child welfare, mental health, and substance
abuse programs. County boards of supervisors established the structure for delivering
these programs. Most commonly, county human services or social services departments
constituted the service delivery structure.
In Milwaukee County, a director of human services was responsible for overall
program oversight and policy development, while separate divisions within the
human services department oversaw financial assistance programs (including AFDC,
Food Stamps, and Medicaid), adult services, mental health programs, and youth
servicesincluding child welfare. In early 1997, however, the state was in the
midst of assuming responsibility for child welfare services in Milwaukee County
(see Last-Resort Safety Net Programs).
Local administration of Wisconsin's employment and training services is not
county based. Funds are channeled to the state's 17 Service Delivery Areas (SDAs),
geographical entities established to administer Job Training Partnership Act
(JTPA) programs. In most cases, SDAs cover multiple counties. Local Collaborative
Planning Teams (LCPTs), which are composed of representatives from agencies
that handle the major federally funded employment and training programs (e.g.,
JOBS, JTPA, Job Service, the technical colleges, and vocational rehabilitation,
and, in some areas, local economic development organizations and community-based
organizations), develop and implement Job Centers for their areas.
Localities are allowed a certain amount of flexibility
in designing and operating their Job Centers. DWD's Division of Workforce Excellence,
however, develops a set of functional and service standards, which the LCPTs
must meet in order to have their one-stop operation certified as a Job Center.
As of late 1997, 73 Job Centers were in various stages of planning or operation.
Each SDA is expected to have at least two fully operational Job Centers by June
30, 1998. (See table 2
for an overview of programs and administrative arrangements.)
Social Welfare Spending and Coverage
In general, funding for social welfare programs
has not kept pace with state spending in other program areas, particularly schools
and prisons. The 1997–99 budget appropriates a total of $37.4 billion for the
biennium, an increase of 9.5 percent from 1995–97. Within these funds, appropriations
for public schools (through the school aids program and the school levy tax
credit) increased by more than 188 percent.16
Funding for the Department of Workforce Development increased by only 13 percent,
and spending for the Department of Health and Family Services increased by a
mere 4 percent.17
Of the programs operated by these departments, Medical Assistance received the
greatest share of state funds; $943.8 million of General Purpose Revenue (GPR)
funds were appropriated for FY 1999, compared with $281.7 million for Community
Aids, the mechanism by which counties receive state and federal funds for human
service programs. The state appropriated $169.2 million for W-2, which was slated
for implementation beginning September 1997. This amount meets the federal requirement
that states appropriate at least 80 percent (or 75 percent for states such as
Wisconsin, which met federal work participation requirements) of what they spent
for AFDC in FY 1994.
In the 1995–97 biennial budget bill, the state's mandatory General Relief program
was replaced with an optional county block grant program. Prior to this budget
initiative, counties were legally required to offer cash and medical assistance
to eligible persons (as defined by state statute and individual counties)typically,
very low income single adults. The change in the law offers counties, at their
option, a block grant from the state to provide primarily medical assistance
to this population. To receive the block grant, counties must match state funds
with local monies. Little more than half of the state's counties (including
Milwaukee County), which represent approximately 80 percent of the state's population,
participate in the new block grant program. Another eight counties operate county-financed
relief programs, six of which provide both cash and medical assistance.
The governor has also pushed for more flexibility in Community Aids spending.
Currently included in Community Aids are federal funds from the Social Services
Block Grant (Title XX), Title IV-E (Foster Care), Title IV-B (Child Welfare),
the Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment Block Grant, and the Community
Mental Health Block Grant. State GPR funds are also allocated to Community Aids.
Prior to 1995, Community Aids funding consisted of 15 categorical allocations
and a basic allocation. With passage of Wisconsin Act 27, counties now receive
four categorical allocations: (1) family support programs for families with
disabled children; (2) substance abuse prevention and treatment; (3) community
mental health programs; and (4) support for families and caregivers of individuals
with Alzheimer's disease. Remaining funds (from Title XX, Title IV-E, and Title
IV-B) were folded into the basic allocation pot.
With fewer categories, counties have more leeway to determine how to spend
their Community Aids allocations. A number of Milwaukee officials, however,
believe that Community Aids funds have not kept pace with needespecially in
the area of child welfare. State officials recognize this shortfall and attribute
low funding levels to cuts in federal spending.
From a national perspective, Wisconsin has been
fairly generous in funding social welfare programs. For example, the state's
spending per poor person in FY 1995 was higher than the U.S. average across
a number of programs (i.e., AFDC, SSI, child nutrition, JOBS, child care, child
support, child welfare, and Medicaid for children). Table
3 summarizes Wisconsin's social welfare
spending for families with children. The federal government provides substantial
support for these programs, with state and local funds accounting for only about
25 percent of the total cost. The federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), JTPA
programs, and IV-A Emergency Assistance are the only programs in Wisconsin for
which combined state and federal expenditures are lower than the national average.
As shown in table
3, social welfare spending for families
and their children increased from 1993 to 1995. Expenditures on benefits for
income support programs, however, declined. From FY 1993 to 1995, for example,
spending on AFDC benefits declined by almost 12 percent. In February 1996, total
AFDC payments were just over $27 million. A year later payments were down by
almost $10 million.18
A similar although not so dramatic trend is seen in Food Stamp payments. These
reductions in AFDC and Food Stamp expenditures reflect the continuing decline
in Wisconsin's caseloads, at rates that far outpace national trends. The exact
causes of the caseload declines are not known, but they are most likely the
result of many factors including Wisconsin's strong economy and welfare policies.
Basic Income Support
Over the last decade, Wisconsin has gradually shifted the focus of its income
support programs from writing checks to requiring work participation in exchange
for benefits. The reforms instituted by the state prior to the federal Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 reflect these
overarching principles: (1) everyone capable of work should work; and (2) families,
with some assistance from government, should provide for their own needs. These
principles are embodied in many of the state's early reforms and in its welfare
replacement program, Wisconsin Works.
W-2 was implemented in September 1997, but elements of the program were part
of Wisconsin's reform strategy long before. By early 1997, components of W-2,
such as Pay for Performance and Self-Sufficiency First, were already in place.
These programs emphasized work by (1) requiring that "job ready" AFDC applicants
look for jobs as a condition of eligibility for aid; (2) stepping up participation
in the JOBS program; and (3) reducing recipients' grants by the minimum wage
for every hour that recipients failed to participate in required job activities.
These mandates were preparing welfare recipients as well as the counties for
W-2. Counties interested in running W-2 in their area had to earn the right
to be a W-2 agency by increasing JOBS participation rates and reducing caseloads.
Elements of Wisconsin Works can be seen evolving through the state's 10 years
of experimentation with welfare waiver programs. These pilots and demonstrations
taught Wisconsin what reforms would and would not help families become more
self-sufficient. They also enabled the state to build the infrastructure (e.g.,
computer systems, community capacity) necessary for broad-scale reform.
An Overview of Wisconsin's Income Support Programs
In 1996–97, the major income support programs in Wisconsin were AFDC and Food
Stamps. The state also offered its own Earned Income Credit (EIC) to eligible
working low-income families. Families who qualified for the federal EITC received
a state EIC of between 4 and 43 percent of the federal amount, depending on
the number of children in the household. Like many other states, Wisconsin also
provided a supplement to recipients of the federal Supplemental Security Income
(SSI) program for elderly and disabled individuals.
The Food Stamp program was the largest of the
state's income support programs in terms of number of participants; in FY 1996,
some 283,255 individuals (or 104,529 households) participated.19
Average benefits per client were approximately $58 a month ($158 per household).20
The state EIC was also widely used195,980 tax filers received an average credit
of $297 in 1996.21
SSI was the next-largest program, with a caseload of 118,489 in 1995–96, the
majority of whom were disabled adults. Federal payments combined with the state
supplement provided SSI recipients with an average monthly benefit of $483.22
In comparison to these programs, AFDC served far fewer families. In October
1996, some 48,451 families were on the rolls, receiving an average monthly payment
of $407.23
Wisconsin also used state funds for two small income support programs that
served targeted populations. The Student 18-Year-Old Assistance program gave
financial aid to high school students who had lost eligibility for AFDC because
they no longer qualified as dependents. To receive benefits under this program,
students had to attend high school regularly, but benefits ended when they turned
19. A small number of underage parents who were not living in an adult-supervised
setting received benefits through the Minor Parents Living Independently program.
Since TANF regulations prohibit minors from receiving assistance as heads of
their own household, the state opted to provide this assistance through the
phaseout of AFDC. Once W-2 is fully implemented, teens in the Minor Parents
program will be required to live in an adult-supervised setting and the program
will end.
Caseload Size and Trends
Wisconsin has received national attention not
only for its welfare reform efforts but also for the extent to which its AFDC
caseload has declined. From January 1993 to September 1997, the caseload dropped
from 81,291 families to 31,336, a decline of more than 61 percent.24
Only Wyoming has experienced greater caseload declines. Sixty percent of the
caseload resides in Milwaukee County, where the decline in AFDC cases over the
last several years has generally been slower than that experienced by other
counties in the state.
The state's Food Stamp caseload has also declined,
but not in such a dramatic fashion. In FY 1994, some 121,809 households participated
in the program. Midway through FY 1997, that number had dropped by just over
a quarter, to approximately 89,000 households.25
State and local officials attribute the decline in caseloads to a variety of
factors but primarily to a good economy and to changes in the message sent to
clients: welfare, they are told, is a temporary program designed to prepare
them for work. Some attribute caseload reductions to misperceptions about the
new welfare system that leave some prospective clients believing they are not
eligible for assistance when, in fact, they are. In Milwaukee, program officials
and staff believe that the Two-Tier Demonstration waiver has affected welfare
rolls. In this demonstration, individuals who moved to Wisconsin and applied
for AFDC during their first six months of living there received a cash grant
comparable to that of their former state of residence, regardless of whether
that state provided higher or lower benefit payments.
Wisconsin introduced this demonstration because of a concern that its generous
benefit levels (a maximum monthly cash payment of $517 for a family of three)
and generally favorable standard of living were attracting poor families from
other states, especially Illinois (where AFDC benefits were $377 a month). Although
evaluation data are not available, intake staff in Milwaukee reported seeing
far fewer out-of-state applicants once the waiver went into effect in 1994.
Unlike AFDC and Food Stamps, EIC receipt and
SSI participation have increased. Between 1993 and 1996, the number of households
receiving the state EIC grew by approximately 13 percent, paralleling growth
in federal EITC receipt.26
During those same years, the SSI caseload grew by just over 10 percent, despite
a decline in the number of elderly receiving assistance.27
The overall increase in SSI caseload numbers can be attributed to an increase
in the number of individualsparticularly childrenwho were receiving SSI because
of a disability. As is true in many states, the number of children in Wisconsin
receiving SSI grew dramatically in the wake of the 1990 U.S. Supreme Court case
Sullivan v. Zebley, which effectively broadened eligibility categories for disabled
children. But annual increases in the number of disabled children receiving
SSI in Wisconsin have outpaced national caseload growth in all but one year
since 1991.28
Federal welfare reform is expected to curtail some of this growth by making
SSI eligibility criteria more restrictive.
Early State Innovations and Waivers
Well before passage of PRWORA, Governor Thompson had made welfare reform a
priority. Since taking office in 1987, the governor has emphasized personal
responsibility, and the state began experimenting with its welfare system and
applying for waivers from federal law. In fact, Wisconsin has been one of the
most prolific states in terms of the number of welfare experiments conducted.
Along with the Two-Tier Demonstration, the state operated two other early and
well-publicized experimentsLearnfare and the Parental and Family Responsibility
project (commonly referred to as "Bridefare"), which attempted to promote a
set of behaviors (school attendance, marriage, and delayed childbearing), and
two other waivers designed to improve recipients' financial situation by increasing
the vehicle asset limit from $1,500 to $2,500 and by allowing recipients to
save money for education and employment-related needs. Although only Learnfare
operated statewide, these experiments set the course for future welfare reform.
More recently, the state's reforms have focused
on increasing recipient work efforts. The Work Not Welfare (WNW) demonstration
began in 1995 and reinforced the message of finding gainful employment rather
than receiving public aid. Applicants for AFDC were encouraged to seek other
financial sources of support (e.g., friends, family, other community-based services)
or to find a job. According to management data, approximately 30 percent of
potential applicants were diverted during the first 20 months of the program.29
Those who did receive AFDC were required to work or to be in training for work
within 30 days of receiving benefits. After 12 months on the rolls, recipients
were expected to be working in either the private or public sector. Benefit
receipt was limited to 24 months in a 48-month period.
Two other key elements of WNW, which were later integrated into W-2, were the
Community Steering Committee and the Children's Services Network. Under WNW,
the Community Steering Committee sought to forge a partnership between the welfare
agency and the private sector. Members of the committee represented business,
government, and education. They helped WNW clients identify job opportunities
and provided mentorship and links to community agencies. The Children's Services
Network linked WNW families to community serviceshousing, food pantries, and
advocacy organizationsin an effort to protect children by helping their parents
access needed services.
At about the same time that WNW was implemented, the Work First pilot program
began in 18 counties. This state legislative effort, which required no waivers,
was both a work-based and a diversionary program. Again, welfare staff attempted
to divert potential AFDC applicants to other community resources and stressed
job search and related activities to those already on assistance. The message
of Work First was clear: AFDC is a temporary program.
Building on WNW and Work First, the state introduced
Self-Sufficiency First (SSF) and Pay for Performance (PFP). Unlike WNW, which
operated in two relatively small counties with low poverty and unemployment
rates, SSF and PFP were statewide demonstrations. Both were implemented in March
1996. Under SSF, applicants for assistance had to meet with a financial planner
to discuss alternatives to applying for AFDC. Additionally, applicants were
required to perform 60 hours of up-front job search (some hours could be spent
in the classroom on job search and related activities) before their case was
opened. These requirements were designed to minimize AFDC usage by having clients
"explore and utilize personal and community resources,"30
including work.
Once on AFDC, PFP required recipients to work, to continue searching for work,
or to participate in some approved JOBS activity. (JOBS was the work and training
program for welfare recipients at the time.) The federal JOBS program mandated
20 hours a week of participation in a designated work or training activity,
although certain clients (e.g., those with young children, those living in remote
areas) were not required to participate. Wisconsin's PFP waivers, however, allowed
that some clients could participate up to 40 hours a week, that a broader group
of recipients (including women with very young children) could participate,
and that the state could increase the penalties for noncompliance. Long-term
postsecondary education was not an acceptable activity for meeting participation
requirements.
These changes were designed, in part, to make the welfare system look more
like the world of work. PFP clients were treated like any employee making an
hourly wagetheir monthly cash grant could be reduced by the federal minimum
wage for each hour they failed to participate in assigned activities. If clients
participated less than 25 percent of their scheduled hours, their families received
no cash assistance and only $10 in Food Stamps. The sanction could be rescindedor
not appliedif clients had good cause for missing the hours, but it was their
responsibility to document their reasons to staff.
While clients fulfilled a work or training requirement, their children ages
six and older were also required to attend school under the Learnfare programs.
This program required that children have no more than 5 full- or part-day unapproved
absences in a consecutive 10-day period or 10 unapproved absences in a 60-day
period. If a child was absent more frequently, the child's portion of the family's
grant was not paid unless the family could show good cause for the absences.
Finally, Wisconsin's AFDC Benefit Cap Demonstration project eliminated the
automatic grant increase for the birth of a child to a family already receiving
government aid. Implemented in 1996 in pilot counties including Milwaukee, this
waiver was designed to encourage families to think about becoming self-sufficient
before having additional children. The benefit cap was also intended to mirror
the world of work, where employees do not receive wage increases every time
they have an additional child.
Local program officials, staff, and advocates
reported mixed views regarding whether the state's many welfare reform efforts
were achieving their desired ends of promoting work and other alternatives to
public assistance. For example, staff in both Milwaukee and Rusk Counties reported
that while the up-front job search requirement initially diverted some potential
clients from applying for assistance, most saw it as another step in the application
process. Staff noted that some applicants fulfilled the job search requirement
in a week so that they could expedite their application. However, one metropolitan
county reported that the job search requirement diverted a substantial number
of potential applicants from seeking assistance.31
Many advocates and nonprofit leaders, especially
those in Milwaukee, feared that the state's reforms were penalizing clients,
rather than helping them move into work. These groups contended that many clients
were inappropriately sanctioned and that penalties were too stringent. In fact,
administrative errors were discovered, and some clients were inappropriately
removed from AFDC rolls.32
However, the state believes it resolved these problems, and it set up a client
hotline to help individuals who had questions about their case.
Programs that Promote Financial Independence
The cash assistance programs described in the previous section cannot always,
by themselves, promote self-sufficiency. In addition, there may be low-income
families who do not meet welfare eligibility criteria but who still need government
support. To move out of poverty, some low-income individuals, especially those
with limited work histories and education, need employment and training and
other support servicesmost notably, child care and health care. Finally, receiving
the child support to which a family is legally entitled can often be the key
steppingstone from welfare to self-sufficiency. Therefore, this section explores
the nature of Wisconsin's programs for employment and training, child care,
health care, and child support as adjuncts to individuals' efforts to work.
Employment and Training
Service Delivery Structure
As noted earlier, Wisconsin created a new Department of Workforce Development
in July 1996 to integrate all of the state's employment and training programs.
DWD encompasses the operating, job training, and unemployment insurance divisions
of the Department of Industry, Labor, and Human Relations along with the Divisions
of Economic Support and Vocational Rehabilitation of the Department of Health
and Social Services (now the Department of Health and Family Services).
As part of the process of reengineering the new Department of Workforce Development,
the state created the Division of Workforce Excellence to implement Wisconsin's
vision for a new employment and training systemthe Partnership for Full Employment.
PFE is designed to
- promote the well-being of individuals and
families through work;
- meet employer needs for quality workers;
- offer quality job opportunities for job seekers;
- integrate services for employers and job seekers;
- help those who need a job obtain a job; and
- provide local leadership and direction.33
PFE seeks to achieve these goals by integrating previously fragmented employment
and training programs into a comprehensive and seamless service delivery system
that functions through the state's Job Centers. Initially developed by a DILHR
working group, Job Centers were later implemented with federal One-Stop, JTPA,
JOBS, and Wagner-Peyser grants. The centers are designed to link job seekers
to appropriate employment opportunities and to provide employers with a central
location for advertising vacancies and recruiting qualified workers. Employers
and job seekers can access a variety of services to meet their needs. The centers
are also the primary delivery point for Wisconsin Works.
Job Centers are located throughout the state's 17 Service Delivery Areas, which
are designated to receive federal job training funds. Within each SDA, a Local
Collaborative Planning Team, consisting of administrators from the various programs
offered through Job Centers, coordinates, plans, and oversees delivery of all
workforce development initiatives operating through the centers. (At a minimum,
local Job Center partners must include Job Service, local technical colleges,
the JTPA Private Industry Council, and the JOBS program.) Since one goal of
PFE is to provide a seamless service delivery system, most employment-related
services are colocated in the Job Centers. Computerized links can provide access
to services not on site.
Job Centers were in various stages of planning or operation at the time of
the Wisconsin site visits, but all 17 SDAs were expected to have at least two
operational centers by June 20, 1998. As of February 1997, all but one SDA had
at least one functioning Job Center, and most had met the requirement for two.
In addition to partnering with various agencies,
a Job Center candidate must offer specific services "on-site to a universal
customer base."34
These services include
career, job, and labor market information;
- information on locally available employment
and training programs;
- information on program eligibility;
- information on support services;
- testing and assessment;
- lists of job openings, hiring requirements,
and job referrals;
- job search assistance; and
- assistance in securing Unemployment Insurance
benefits.35
DWD uses federal One-Stop grants as the primary source of funding for Job Centers.
These grants were part of a national effort to promote consolidated delivery
of employment and training services; in 1994, Wisconsin received a $3.5 million
grant. At the local level, a mix of staff representing various programs and
agencies run the centers (e.g., a state Job Service person, a Private Industry
Council director, county employees). Job Centers differ from more traditional
Job Service agencies funded by the Wagner-Peyser Act in that Job Centers (1)
have a multi-source funding base; (2) offer services beyond labor exchanges;
and (3) provide integrated services rather than referrals to other agencies.
Most individuals use the Job Center as a self-service vehicle, for example,
to seek employment on their own via JobNet, the state's computerized job listing
system. Customers needing a little more help might use the Lite Level of Assistancegenerally,
a series of workshops on topics ranging from resume writing to workplace behavior.
Customers needing more in-depth assistance can access the centers' specialized
services.
Services for Families on Welfare
Even before the creation of the federal JOBS
program in 1988 as the primary employment and training approach for welfare
recipients, Wisconsin was operating its own effortthe Work Experience and Job
Training programand implemented JOBS in 1989, essentially by modifying its
existing program. Federal funding regulations for JOBS required states to match
a certain percentage of federal allocations to receive the full amount of available
funds. Unlike many states, Wisconsin was able to claim its entire JOBS grant
by providing the required matching funds.36
The state's track record for moving welfare recipients into the JOBS programjust
under 32 percent of the mandated number of participants in 1994beat the national
average of about 22 percent.37
During this same period, Wisconsin was also experimenting
with its welfare program. In the early years of JOBS, relatively large numbers
of participants were enrolled in some type of educational activity. In 1991,
for example, almost two-fifths of enrolled participants were in high school
completion or postsecondary education programs.38
In more recent years, Wisconsin shifted its reform efforts away from educational
activities and toward work. By 1994, the number of JOBS participants involved
in educational activities had dropped to nearly one-third.39
By early 1997, long-term postsecondary education was being phased out as an
acceptable activity. Staff could only approve short-term training (less than
six months) for individuals who had not been employed in the prior year. Otherwise,
clients were expected to be working, looking for work, or participating in a
community service job.
Single adults ages 18 to 50 who receive food stamps are another welfare population
expected to be working or in training. Under federal welfare law, single able-bodied
adults not working 20 hours a week or more may only receive food stamps for
3 months out of a 60-month period. This requirement may be waived when there
is a labor surplus in a particular area of the state. Because of the overall
health of Wisconsin's economy, Governor Thompson has yet to exercise this option.
According to state officials, most counties were placing single adults into
the county Food Stamp employment and training program, which helps recipients,
including heads of households who receive Food Stamps but no cash assistance,
find work.
Other Targeted Services
Although federal welfare reform, coupled with Wisconsin's own efforts, emphasizes
employment for welfare recipients, PFE and Job Centers are designed to serve
all job seekers and employers. Any job seeker may use these centers to facilitate
a job search, and employers are offered the same three levels of services (self,
light, and specialized). Employers may use Job Center services on their own
(e.g., they can enter their job openings directly on the Internet or search
for job matches on JobNet). Or center staff can provide employers with light
services, for example, by running a workshop on strategies for coping with labor
shortages, sponsoring a job fair, or hosting career days. Employers may also
request specialized services, such as help with upgrading their current workforce
or with planning for impending layoffs.
Youth are another focus of Wisconsin's employment and training system. Within
DWD, the Division of Connecting Education and Work has administrative responsibility
for the main youth program-School-to-Work (STW). Wisconsin received one of the
first-round implementation grants under the 1994 federal School-to-Work Opportunities
Act. According to the U.S. Department of Education, the state's STW program,
called Skills for the Future, is considered one of the premier programs of its
kind in the country. The goal of the program is to provide students with the
academic and technical skills they need to compete for the jobs of the next
century.
One of STW's major initiatives is the Youth Apprenticeship program, which was
created prior to passage of the federal STW law. Through the Youth Apprenticeship
program, eligible high school juniors and seniors combine school classes with
work experience in a variety of industries, such as biotechnology, graphic arts,
and manufacturing. Upon successful completion of the program, students earn
a skill certificate along with their high school diploma, and they may receive
credits toward an associate's degree at a state technical college.
Child Care
Priorities and Budget
Governor Thompson and his administration recognize that child care is crucial
to transforming cash assistance into a work-based system. Working families must
have affordable, convenient, and reliable child care. Wisconsin has set several
goals for its child care system: (1) consolidate various federal funding sources
into a single child care funding stream; (2) eliminate waiting lists for care;
(3) provide child care to all eligible low-income families, not just those receiving
cash assistance; and (4) expand capacity. Federal welfare reform has facilitated
the state's ability to meet these goals. The federal government's decision to
allocate child care funds via block grants to states made it easier for Wisconsin
to create a single child care funding stream. Additionally, the windfall the
state received because of its early implementation of federal welfare reform,
coupled with caseload reductions, allowed Wisconsin to move more funds into
child care and thus expand available resources to serve more families.
Along with streamlining child care funding, Wisconsin consolidated the administration
of its various child care programs. Before state government restructuring in
1996, two divisions within the Department of Health and Social Services were
responsible for administering child care programs. The Division of Community
Services handled the Child Care Development Block Grant (CCDBG), At-Risk funds
child care for low-income families, and state-funded child care programs. It
also licensed facilities. The Division of Economic Support administered all
other Title IV-A and JOBS child care for AFDC recipients. These divisions met
monthly to coordinate child care activities and jointly promulgated child care
administrative rules, policies, and training for local staff. When DWD was created
in July 1996, all state child care responsibilities, with the exception of licensing,
were transferred to its Division of Economic Support.
In order to deliver child care services, the state contracts with county agencies
that administer subsidized child care. Counties are authorized to subcontract
this function to other agencies. Seventeen Child Care Resource and Referral
agencies also receive CCDBG funds to provide parents with information on child
care resources and to support child care providers with assistance and training.
Funding for subsidized child care has increased dramatically in Wisconsin.
In 1987, a total of $12.5 million was spent on subsidized care; by 1996, child
care allocations were over $60 million. The state plans to move the maximum
allowable TANF dollars into child care. Given the dramatic caseload decline
in Wisconsin, the state has a substantial TANF windfall to devote to child care.
The governor's 1997–98 budget proposed increasing child care funding from the
$63 million spent in FY 1996 to $158 million in 1997 and $180 million in 1998.
At the time of the Wisconsin site visit, subsidized child care funding was
in the process of consolidation. Before that, AFDC families were entitled to
child care assistance through Title IV-A funding if they were working or participating
in JOBS. As these families left AFDC because of increased earnings, they could
continue to receive a Transitional Child Care subsidy. Families whose income
did not exceed 75 percent of the state median incomeapproximately $28,000 for
a family of threewere also eligible for At-Risk and CCDBG assistance.
Supply and Quality
Until July 1, 1996, counties received At-Risk and CCDBG monies directly, as
part of their Community Aids funding. (Community Aids funds are allocated annually
on the basis of estimated human services needs in a county.) Even though counties
were required to provide a 9.89 percent match, the potential for shortfalls
in child care funding existed if need was greater than anticipated. As a way
of managing this problem, the state added categories beyond income eligibility
for assistance, as follows:
- families with special needs children;
- families with income at or below 50 percent
of the state median income;
- teen parents needing child care in order to
complete high school or other approved educational activities;
- employed AFDC recipients if their child care
expenses were greater than the dependent child care income disregard or if
the child care income disregard was not yet available;40
- working families who left AFDC within the
prior 12 months because of increased earnings; and
- other low-income working families.
Even with these new priorities, when funds fell short, poor clients who were
working were put on a waiting list for child care. In 1996, the state's waiting
list contained more than 9,600 children, more than 4,000 of them living in Milwaukee.
The state tackled the waiting list problem from the point of both funding and
supply. It eliminated Community Aids as a funding mechanism for child care and
moved CCDBG and the At-Risk funds into DWD's budget. Then in early 1997, it
informed the counties that funds would be disbursed on the basis of actual need,
rather than as a capped allocation based on estimated need. Clients would remain
eligible for subsidized care for as long as they met income eligibility requirements
and were working or in required work activities. This shift quickly reduced
the child care waiting list. In addition, Wisconsin dedicated $5 million to
building the state's child care infrastructure.
Until the recent changes in child care that accompanied W-2 (see Welfare
Reform Plans), recipients of subsidized child care could choose from three
types of eligible providers: licensed group centers, licensed family day care
providers, and certified family day care providers. Providers must be licensed
if they are caring for four or more children under the age of seven. Licensing
is administered at the state level; certification is administered at the local
level by a county department of social services. Whether a provider is licensed
or certified affects the type and length of training required and the level
of reimbursement the provider may receive.
The process of bringing these new providers into the subsidized child care
system has been problematic. Milwaukee County staff reported frequent payment
delays to new providers, who often submit incomplete or late paperwork. New
providers must be certified with child care resource and referral agencies,
a process that includes submission of an application package, participation
in child care training sessions, and completion of a background check. Breakdowns
were noted in this process. Some providers who may have incorrectly filled out
a form were not told of their mistakes; their application was never processed
and they were subsequently not paid. Additionally, the Planning Council for
Health and Human Services, which sets reimbursement rates for the county and
staffs the county's Child Care Advisory Committee, found that new centers open
for business only to close down quickly.
The $5 million that Wisconsin dedicated to building child care infrastructure
was also intended to enhance quality of care. Grants were issued to providers
who had been licensed or certified for three years and who had no serious enforcement
infractions during that period. Providers used the grants to improve program
quality, become accredited, train staff, improve staff salaries, and reduce
turnover. Despite these efforts, some advocates and service providers believe
that the state is less interested in improving the quality of child care than
it is in expanding its supply.
Early Childhood Development
The Department of Public Instruction oversees early childhood development programs,
which along with child care programs are generally coordinated through a statewide
coalition that includes Head Start providers, child care providers, and representatives
from the Department of Public Instruction and the public schools' labor union.
This group examines the status of early childhood development initiatives and
proposes new approaches for serving young children. While progress has reportedly
been made, the different ideologies among group members may slow the process
of designing a single and cohesive early childhood development policy.
Currently, the state does not operate an extensive prekindergarten program.
Head Start is the only major early childhood development program for low-income
families. The Department of Public Instruction does administer $5 million in
supplemental funding to Head Start, which is less than 10 percent of Head Start
expenditures in Wisconsin (the state's federal allocation for Head Start in
FY 1996 was just over $54 million). The supplement is used to provide all-day
wraparound services in a select number of sites. Additionally, the state received
a federal Head Start collaborative grant to facilitate coordination between
Head Start and other early childhood development programs. Most of the grant
is being contracted out to the state Head Start organization, but some of the
grant will fund a collaborator position based in the Child Care Bureau within
the Department of Workforce Development. The collaborator will oversee coordination
efforts.
Head Start enrolled more than 12,000 children in FY 1996. Yet critics believe
that these are mainly children of the very poor and not the working poor. Some
are concerned about the impact that welfare reform will have on Head Start,
especially with the implementation of W-2 and its increased emphasis on work,
which may render half-day Head Start programs an impractical option for families.
The state hopes families will not leave Head Start either because of the hours
of care or because of income ineligibility. State policymakers believe that
the federal Head Start program must adapt to the realities of a work-based welfare
programby perhaps increasing the number of full-day programs and adjusting
current income restrictions, for example.
Child Support
The Title IV-D child support program is supervised on the state level by the
Bureau of Child Support within the Division of Economic Support. Prior to Wisconsin's
departmental reorganization in 1996, the bureau was located in the Department
of Health and Social Services. It is now part of the DWD. This move reflects
the state's view that child support is an essential component of self-sufficiency
for those receiving public aid. While the state oversees child support efforts,
its 72 counties operate the child support system through cooperative agreements
with a number of interrelated entities: the clerks of the court, sheriffs, offices
of corporation counsel or private attorneys, and other officials and agencies.
Wisconsin has been a national leader in efforts
to establish paternity and collect child support. In 1995, it ranked first among
the states in paternity establishment, establishing paternity in 80 percent
of cases.41
Wisconsin ranked second nationally in child support collections in 1994 (in
cases in which a child support order existed within the publicly funded child
support system),42
with a collection rate twice that of the national average of 18.3 percent.43
In 1994–95, Wisconsin collected more than $800 million in previously unpaid
child support.44
Wisconsin's child support collection efforts
have been enhanced by federal and state incentives. In FY 1994, Wisconsin earned
$5.8 million, or 7 percent of the child support collected on behalf of AFDC
and Foster Care recipients.45
These payments are calculated using a collection-to-cost ratio, which measures
how efficient the state was in collecting support. In 1994, Wisconsin ranked
third in the country, collecting $7.74 for every dollar spent on enforcement.46
(The national collection-to-cost rate was $3.86 for each dollar spent on collections.47)
Federal incentive payments are passed on to counties according to the counties'
collection-to-cost ratio. Wisconsin also provides its own incentives to counties.
A minimum of $259,000 in General Purpose Revenue funds are dedicated each year
to rewarding counties for increased paternity establishment, increased child
support collections, and improved administrative efficiency.48
The total child support enforcement cost to counties in FY 1995 was more than
$44 million.49
In September 1996, Wisconsin implemented its Kids Information Data System (KIDS),
a statewide automated child support system that replaced the state's previous
automated system in response to the Family Support Act of 1988. KIDS facilitates
the collection of child support in Wisconsin by
- giving child support workers access to all
child support cases statewide;
- interacting with federal and state computer
systems to locate noncustodial parents;
- producing billing coupons for parents who
owe support;
- tracking unpaid child support for tax intercept
purposes;
- providing employers with a list of employees
subject to income withholding; and
- automating required court documents and legal
notices.50
Wisconsin contracted out the development of KIDS to Integrated Systems Solution
Corporation, but county support agencies and clerks of court were involved in
the development process. In the 1995–97 biennial budget, more than $50 million
was allocated for the development and operation of KIDS.
Wisconsin's child support system is probably best known for its Children First
program, which exemplifies the state's philosophy that both parents, not just
the custodial parent, must be responsible for the financial support of their
children. Children First was created as a two-county pilot under Governor Thompson's
Welfare Reform Act of 1987. Noncustodial parents are ordered into Children First
through the court system when they are not paying child support, when they are
not working full-time, and when they state that they have no means of paying
their legal obligation of support. Noncustodial parents can fulfill the Children
First requirements by meeting their support obligation for three consecutive
months or by participating in job training for 16 weeks; case management services
may also be provided. If parents fail to comply with the requirements of Children
First, they may face jail.
Children First has been highly successful. A
study conducted by the state showed that in 1993, the average child support
payment increased by 158 percent and the number of parents paying child support
increased by 66 percent.51
By mid-1996, Children First had expanded beyond the initial two-county pilot
to include 30 counties. Further expansion is expected under W-2.
Paternity establishment is also an important
part of the child support system. As with most states, the nonmarital birthrate
in Wisconsin has increased significantly in the last two decades. In 1980, approximately
14 percent of births in Wisconsin were to unmarried couples.52
By 1994, this figure was 27.2 percent.
Medicaid and
Other Health Insurance53
Wisconsin's Medicaid program, known as Medical Assistance (MA), is one of the
more generous in the country, covering virtually every optional service to recipients.
Eligibility requirements are also generous. In 1995–96, 76 percent of the state's
low-income families (those with incomes less than 150 percent of the federal
poverty level) were covered472,718 individuals as of October 1995. Medical
Assistance has two distinct components: (1) MA for welfare recipients and related
groups; and (2) MA for groups not associated with the welfare program.
Under federal law, Wisconsin is required to provide MA to families eligible
for AFDC or TANF as well as 12 months of transitional health care to families
who leave welfare for work. Wisconsin instituted transitional health care for
AFDC recipients in 1987, before the federal Family Support Act required it.
MA coverage is also extended to families for four months if the family leaves
welfare because of increased income from child support. In addition, Wisconsin
covers two welfare-related groups that are optional under the federal program:
families who are eligible for assistance but do not receive it and those who
would be eligible if they paid their own child care expenses.
The Healthy Start component of MA covers pregnant women and children under
the age of six in families whose income is less than 185 percent of the federal
poverty levela more generous standard than the 133 percent required by federal
law. Wisconsin also covers children born after September 30, 1983, in families
whose income is less than 100 percent of the federal poverty level. As of October
1995, some 47,055 persons were enrolled in Healthy Start.
In light of Wisconsin's generous MA program for welfare recipients and low-income
families, it is not surprising that MA is the third-largest item in the state's
budget. However, actual Medical Assistance costs have been lower than budgeted
for because of cost-containment measures and the decline in AFDC caseloads.
One way the state has kept health care costs down is by using a system of health
maintenance organizations (HMOs) to provide MA services for AFDC-related groups.
This system was started more than 15 years ago in Milwaukee. By the summer of
1997, the program had expanded to all areas of the state, with most counties
mandating that AFDC recipients sign on with an HMO.
Wisconsin's efforts to reform welfare extend to health care as well. The W-2
program attempted to end entitlement to medical coverage by replacing it with
a W-2 health plan. Although this plan would have increased coverage by extending
benefits to families and groups who were not eligible under the MA system, it
also required families to share in the cost of health care premiums according
to their family size and income. In addition, it would have required families
to purchase health insurance if their employer contributed at least 50 percent
of the premium. The plan was consistent with the philosophy of W-2 as a whole:
It did not give priority to welfare recipients over other low-income families,
and it asked recipients to share in the cost of care as other working families
do.
Wisconsin did not receive a federal waiver for its W-2 health care plan. At
the time of the site visit, state officials were concerned that without this
waiver many W-2 recipients would lose health care benefits if their earnings
and assets surpassed MA eligibility standards. The state subsequently revised
its waiver application, calling the proposed new program "BadgerCare," resubmitted
it to the federal government, and was again turned down. The state continues
to seek federal approval for its plan, but until then it will be required under
PRWORA to keep MA as an entitlement and to provide MA services on the basis
of policy rules in place as of July 1996.
In addition to operating the MA program, the
state runs several health programs that are limited in scope. General Relief
(GR) is the largest of these. In 1995, Governor Thompson replaced GR with an
optional county block grant program. Counties wishing to offer GR receive a
block grant from the state that may be used to provide nonmedical benefits,
but only if the county provides health care services as well. In Milwaukee County,
block grant funds may be used only to provide health care. The grants are drawn
from state GPR funds, except in Milwaukee, where 60 percent of the funds come
from the federal Medicaid program. To receive these funds, counties must provide
their own matching funds. Forty-three of Wisconsin's 72 counties, including
Milwaukee, offer a General Relief program. Eight counties fund GR on their own.
In 1995, $67.8 million in state and county funds were used to provide General
Relief services; 80 percent of these funds were used for medical care.54
Additionally, the state's Health Insurance Risk-Sharing Plan offers medical
benefits for eligible nonelderly persons (1) who have been denied coverage;
(2) whose premiums have risen by more than 50 percent; (3) who have experienced
a substantial decrease in benefits; or (4) who have a qualifying medical condition
(e.g., HIV). This program is funded by a combination of participant premiums,
revenue from assessments on insurers, provider discounts, and state GPR funds.
A unique feature of Wisconsin's high-risk pool program is that it provides subsidies
to low-income individuals to help cover the cost of premiums and deductibles.
However, the funding for this program is limited and not all eligible individuals
may be served.
Finally, WisconCare, funded by revenue from assessments on hospitals, provides
limited primary care services and inpatient maternity care to low-income persons
in 17 counties with high unemployment rates. To be eligible, an individual's
income must be less than 150 percent of the federal poverty level, and the person
must be unemployed or working no more than 25 hours a week. This program serves
about 1,500 recipients yearly.
Last-Resort Safety Net Programs
Some families have serious and immediate needs that financial assistance alone
cannot address. This section focuses on three such resources: child welfare,
emergency services, and housing.
The child welfare system protects children from abuse and neglect. As laudatory
as the goals of welfare reform are, the new expectations of work and responsibility
can impose added stress on families already living in crisis. Thus, a strong
child welfare system can be integral to the success of the public assistance
transformation. In Wisconsin, child welfare is a county-run program with minimal
state control over day-to-day operations. Control of the child welfare system
is changing in the state's largest county, Milwaukee, where the state has been
preparing to take over operations of a child welfare system that has been by
all accounts deeply troubled.
Wisconsin's emergency assistance strategy reflects the state's approach to
welfare reform generally. The focus is on preventing homelessness and moving
people out of shelters, rather than on building shelter capacity. This approach
is not always successful, since the state does not appear to have adequate public
housing to meet the needs of its citizens. Understanding how Wisconsin's child
welfare, emergency service, and housing programs operate in the context of the
welfare system of 1996 and early 1997 provides a basis for comparison with the
program structure after two years of welfare reform.
Child Welfare
Child welfare agencies are responsible for, among other activities, protecting
children from abuse and neglect. They may intervene when such behavior is suspected,
may offer services or require that families accept services if the need is documented,
and may remove children from their home and place them in state-supervised care
if the children face imminent harm from their parents or caretakers. Historically,
there has been some tension between state and county officials in Wisconsin,
especially between the state and Milwaukee County, regarding the delivery and
financing of child welfare services. Until recently, counties had primary responsibility
for overseeing child welfare services. However, in settling a class action lawsuit
filed by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the state has agreed to
assume the responsibility for administering child welfare services in Milwaukee,
where more than half of Wisconsin's foster care population resides. Also, the
legislature recently amended child welfare statutes to clarify the mission and
priorities of the state's child welfare system. Finally, as part of welfare
reform, the state is requiring county child welfare agencies to assess, monitor,
and provide financial assistance to children who are cared for by relatives
not legally responsible for them.
Organization and Caseload Dynamics
Wisconsin is one of 12 states in which counties administer child welfare services.
Counties are responsible for all child welfare functions except adoption and
have wide latitude in designing programs to meet local needs and priorities.
The state's primary responsibility is to develop policy, to administer federal
funds, to oversee funding, to handle the adoption of all special needs children
outside of Milwaukee County, and to supervise the provision of programs and
services. Prior to July 1, 1996, these responsibilities were handled by the
Bureau for Children, Youth and Families in the Department of Health and Social
Services's Division of Community Services. After the state reorganizationat
which time DHSS became the Department of Health and Family Serviceschild welfare
programs and services fell under the purview of the Division of Child and Family
Services (DCFS) within DHFS. DCFS created a separate bureau to administer child
welfare services within Milwaukee County. Three other bureaus handle child welfare
and related services for the state as a whole: (1) the Bureau of Regulation
and Licensing; (2) the Bureau of Programs and Policies (responsible for adoption
and child welfare services); and (3) the Bureau of Community and Family Development
(responsible for Family Preservation and Support programs and community outreach).
However, decisionmaking for day-to-day program operations lies with the counties,
and thus, the child welfare system differs somewhat from county to county. This
report's description of child welfare in Wisconsin focuses primarily on the
role of the state government and on the systems in place in Milwaukee and Rusk
Counties.
As in most of the nation, the number of cases
entering the child welfare system in Wisconsin soared in the 1980s. The number
of children reported as abused and neglected in Wisconsin steadily increased,
from 17,202 in 1984 to a peak of 49,152 in 1993. The state did not see a decline
in the number of child abuse and neglect reports until 1994the first drop in
more than a decade. This trend continued in 1995. However, the decline varied
from county to county. Reports of abuse in 1995 ranged from 4.4 per 1,000 children
in Vernon County to 121.3 per 1,000 children in Menominee County; Milwaukee
County had a rate of 47.3 reports per 1,000 children, and Rusk County had a
rate of 21.3 reports per 1,000 children.55
Substantiation rates (i.e., the proportion of reports in which the child is
determined to be in need of protective intervention or protective services)
also varied throughout the state. This rate ranged from 17 percent in Kewaunee
County to 65 percent in Vernon County. Milwaukee and Rusk Counties had similar
rates of 39 and 34 percent, respectively. The overall state substantiation rate
in 1995 was 38 percent.56
If abuse or neglect is substantiated, one option
is to place the child in out-of-home care. As reports of abuse and neglect rose,
so too has the out-of-home care caseloadin 1987, it was 4,891 cases; by 1993,
the caseload had grown to 7,662.57
Most of this growth was due to large increases in Milwaukee County's out-of-home
caseload, which rose from 1,721 in 1987 to 3,928 in 1993, while in the rest
of the state the caseload rose from 3,170 in 1987 to 3,734 in 1993.58
Rusk County had 17 out-of-home care cases open on December 31, 1993.59
Furthermore, the average length of stay for out-of-home
care cases is longer in Milwaukee County than in other counties. A study conducted
by the state indicated that after 12 months, 73 percent of out-of-home placement
cases in Milwaukee County remained in care, while in the rest of the state,
only 27 percent of children placed in care were still there a year later. After
36 months, nearly half (47 percent) of these cases in Milwaukee remained in
their out-of-home placements, while only 6 percent remained out of their homes
in the balance of the state. However, many children in out-of-home care in Milwaukee
County are placed with relatives; estimates indicate that this arrangement accounts
for 40 percent of the county's children in licensed out-of-home care. While
comparable data do not exist for other counties, the state study suggests that
the placement of children with relatives is far less common outside of Milwaukee.60
Child Welfare Financing
Counties also have considerable flexibility in determining how much funding
to allocate for different services, except for some funding amounts that are
distributed for specific services. Counties have complained, however, that the
state has restricted their ability to increase federal revenue for child welfare.
Milwaukee County officials have also claimed that the state has withheld some
federal revenue to which they believe they are entitled.
Through Community Aids funding, the state distributes federal child welfare
money (including Title IV-B Child Welfare services and Title IV-E Foster Care
funds), other federal money (including Title XX, Social Services Block Grant;
Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment Block Grant; Community Mental Health
Block Grant; and Child Care Development Block Grant funds), and state general
revenue funds for human services. As noted earlier, counties are required to
put up a 9.89 percent match for Community Aids funds. Between 1986 and 1995,
total Community Aids revenue transferred to counties increased by $63 million,
with state general revenue funds accounting for $12 million of this increase
and federal funds accounting for the remaining $51 million. During the same
period, counties increased their own spending on Community Aids activities by
more than $110 million beyond the required match. County officials have argued
that Community Aids funding has not kept pace with the growing demands placed
on county human services agencies and that the state, in effect, has used Community
Aids as a block grant to cap its financial liability for human services.
County officials have also complained that they are unable to increase the
federal revenue they receive for child welfare services. Recent increases in
county child welfare spending have provided the matching funds necessary for
the state to claim additional federal Title IV-E reimbursement. Counties claim
that instead of passing through the additional federal revenue, the state has
used these funds to offset state general revenue funds included in Community
Aids. On the other hand, Wisconsin officials note that there is no federal requirement
to use these funds for child welfare (Title IV-E funds are federal reimbursement
for funds already spent by the state, and the money can be used for any purpose).
While some state officials are willing to concede that the state may have kept
too much Title IV-E money, they also point out that federal regulations give
them the ability to do so. Milwaukee County officials considered bringing a
lawsuit against the state for withholding its fair share of funds, but they
were advised that they had little recourse under existing federal regulations.
Additionally, county officials perceive that the state has made it difficult
for counties to claim Medicaid reimbursement for child welfare services. State
child welfare officials, however, said that any "obstacles" to securing Medicaid
reimbursement are there by design to ensure that federal regulations are not
violated.
Service Delivery
The Department of Human Services within Milwaukee County has been responsible
for delivering child welfare services through its Youth Services Division. Youth
Services is divided into five bureaus, with the Child Welfare Bureau having
the primary responsibility for most aspects of the child welfare systeminvestigating
allegations of abuse and neglect, removing children judged to be abused or neglected,
monitoring the homes of children not removed, and managing children placed in
child care.
Intake to the child welfare system in Milwaukee County typically occurs via
telephone. Workers report that few calls are "screened out," so that at least
an initial investigation is conducted in most cases. After the case is investigated,
it can be closed with no services, closed but with a referral to a community
organization for services, kept open and referred for services, or kept open
with a request to remove the child from the home. Although the percentage of
cases in which abuse or neglect is substantiated (i.e., the case is not closed)
has remained relatively stable at about 38 to 40 percent, staff vacancies have
increased, so that caseworkers carry large caseloadsaround 100 cases per worker
on average.
The large caseloads are indicative of the problems faced by the county. In
1993, the ACLU filed suit against Wisconsin and Milwaukee County alleging that
the county and state had failed to protect children and families as required
by state and federal law. This lawsuit followed a long history of tension and
distrust between the state and the county and prompted the Wisconsin legislature
to approve a state takeover of Milwaukee's child welfare system. The takeover
is expected to significantly change the way child welfare services are planned,
delivered, and financed.
While the ACLU lawsuit highlighted deficiencies in Milwaukee's child welfare
system, state and county officials had long recognized the problems, though
they disagreed on the causes. State officials claimed that the county's system
suffered from mismanagement, lack of accountability, and insufficient resources
for prevention and early intervention. County officials argued that their difficulties
stemmed from a lack of financial support from the state. Milwaukee child welfare
officials have supported the state takeover, largely because they feel it will
force the state to increase its funding for child welfare services. Moreover,
county officials accept that a lack of resources made it impossible for them
to adequately protect vulnerable children, and they acknowledge that the ACLU
had legitimate grounds to sue. While county officials did not want to give up
control of their system, they did not believe there was any other way to increase
resources for child welfare services. Milwaukee County officials note that as
a result of the takeover child welfare staffing will more than double, from
300 to 800, hopefully reducing worker caseloads to 15 families.
Rusk County has not experienced such turmoil. Child welfare is the responsibility
of the Children and Families Division of the county Human Services Department.
In the early 1990s, the county shifted to a family-based model whereby staff
provide services aimed at keeping the family together. The Division of Children
and Families is viewed by the community as an organization that helps families,
rather than one that takes children from their homes. As a result, referrals
for services have increased. If keeping the family together is not possible,
Rusk County child welfare staff attempt to find relatives to care for the child,
using foster care as a last resort. The Rusk County Human Services Department
encourages caseworkers to be creative in providing assistance to families, even
if it means seeing the family outside of normal working hours. At the time of
the site visits, caseworkers had caseloads of about 35 families apiece.
Service delivery within all counties was affected
by legislative changes in 1996 that revamped the Children's Codethe laws governing
children in need of protection or services because of abuse, neglect, abandonment,
or a child's behavioral problems. A key change was in legislative intent, made
with the addition of the following language: "[i]n construing this chapter,
the best interests of the child [emphasis added] shall always be of paramount
consideration."61
Prior to this addition, and several others stressing the child's best interest,
there was far more emphasis on maintaining family relationships. New language
was inserted stressing that family unity should be preserved "whenever appropriate."
But such language was tempered by statements such as "[t]he courts should recognize
that they have the authority, in appropriate cases, not to reunite a child with
his or her family."62
Additionally, the legislature amended the Children's Code to add conditions
(e.g., cases in which parents commit a serious felony against one of their other
children) under which child welfare agencies need not attempt reunification
and instead can push for immediate termination of parental rights. It is unclear
how these legislative language changes will affect policies and practice in
a system that gives counties primary responsibility for administration and services.
Challenges Facing the Child Welfare System
The state's takeover of Milwaukee's child welfare system will significantly
change the planning and delivery of child welfare services. The state is attempting
to design a system that will provide a variety of support services to families
who need assistance but who do not need to be served by the formal child welfare
system. The new system will be more decentralized. State employees will be responsible
for intake, investigations, and family assessments; lead agencies will provide
all other services under state contract. For contracting purposes, the state
divided the county into five geographic areas, each to be overseen by a lead
agency. Milwaukee County will be the lead agency in two of the regions; private
agencies will be responsible for the other three. In implementing this decentralized
structure, the state has stressed the importance of developing a more neighborhood-based
system that takes advantage of the strengths of existing community-based nonprofit
organizations. In addition, the state is stressing the need to improve data
collection and performance measurement systems.
Throughout the state, a subset of foster parentsgrandparents or other-will
also see great changes in the way they are paid and monitored. W-2 changes the
way in which children living with family other than their parents are financially
supported and transfers responsibility for monitoring these cases to county
child welfare agencies. Prior to W-2, if a child resided with a non-legally
responsible relative (e.g., grandparent, uncle or aunt, cousin), the relative
could apply for a childonly AFDC grant ($248 a month for one child, $440 for
two children) or, if the relative met income eligibility requirements, an AFDC
grant for herself and the child or children. Unless there was a reported case
of abuse or neglect, these nonlegally responsible relative cases were never
scrutinized by the child welfare system. Nonlegally responsible relative cases,
though, were not considered appropriate for the work-oriented W-2 program and
as a result, they are now referred to the Kinship Care program administered
by county child welfare agencies. Under Kinship Care, eligible caretakers receive
$215 a month per child. Thus, relative caretakers of two or fewer children (approximately
87 percent of the caseload) receive somewhat less financial support under W-2
than they did under AFDC.
Relatives applying for aid under the Kinship Care program will now be assessed
by staff from child welfare rather than from the public assistance office. The
assessment process will be more detailed and will likely find some relatives
ineligible for assistance. Before a relative can receive a Kinship Care payment,
county child welfare staff must determine that the child is in need of protection
or services, or that the child would likely need protection or services should
the child remain in the parents' home. In addition, there must be a reason for
the living arrangement, and the arrangement must be in the best interest of
the child. Finally, all Kinship Care household members, not just the designated
caretaker, must pass a criminal background check. Counties must review the placement
of all children for whom a Kinship grant is paid at least every 12 months to
determine whether continued placement with a relative is still necessary.
As of January 1, 1997, counties began transferring
current nonlegally responsible relative cases and new applicants to Kinship
Care. The Legislative Fiscal Bureau estimated that there were 5,600 nonlegally
responsible relative cases involving 9,700 children at the time of W-2 implementation.
The bureau estimated that 6,111 of these children would be placed in the new
Kinship Care category; 1,309 would enter foster care; and 2,280 would be returned
home. Kinship Care cases are especially important because the Fiscal Bureau
estimates that the legislative change will result in 495 additional children
entering the child welfare system for out-of-home placement each month. Of these
children, the bureau expects that 406, or 82 percent, will enter Kinship Care,
while the others will be placed in foster care.63
TANF block grant funds support the Kinship Care program. The switch to Kinship
Care creates a program of more than $26 million, even though the legislature
did not authorize any new state-level staff to oversee it.
Emergency Services and Housing
Wisconsin's Division of Housing (DOH), located within the Department of Administration,
is responsible for housing and homeless programs. Its role, however, is primarily
one of administering funds, the bulk of which come from the U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Wisconsin adds to HUD funding and funds
its own separate state programs such as the Interest Bearing Real Estate Trust
Account. Under this program, real estate agents and brokers are required to
set up trust funds for money earned from real estate transactions. Interest
accrued from these accounts is sent to the Wisconsin Department of Administration
and is primarily used to fund homeless shelters and other programs. Additionally,
the state funds transitional housing programs, which provide support services
and education and training to help formerly homeless families make the transition
to self-sufficiency.
Housing policy for both DOH and the Milwaukee Housing Authority (MHA) focuses
on helping individuals and families remain in their homes and become self-sufficient;
a shelter-based strategy for dealing with homelessness is not promoted. As a
result, AFDC Emergency Assistance funds are used to help homeless persons return
to the community; the funds can only be used for shelters when homelessness
is the result of a natural disaster.
Service Delivery and Capacity
The state's commitment to preventing homelessness and helping families move
out of shelters has not always had the desired effect of lowering the homeless
population. At the time of the Wisconsin study visits, Milwaukee was trying
to manage overcrowding problems in its shelters. For example, one shelter, designed
to house 22 single adults, had 52 people in residence at one point. When a resident
developed a drug-resistant strain of tuberculosis, the Red Cross declared Milwaukee
a disaster area and worked with local churches to develop a temporary shelter
system using church basements and Red Cross workers as staff.
According to a state report, the number of homeless
in Wisconsin has been increasing annually.64
Many shelters report they are at capacity and must turn people away or endure
overcrowding. Finding shelter space for families with children is also a problem.
In Milwaukee, many of the major shelters will not allow children or will only
take children under the ages of 10 or 12. MHA administers public housing in
Milwaukee and reports a waiting list of approximately 4,000 families. Demand
for Section 8 housing vouchers far exceeds availability.
Some point to increases in homelessness in Milwaukee as a sign that the requirements
of welfare reform are too harsh and that families are suffering as a result.
However, state officials stressed that the welfare caseload was dropping at
a much faster rate than the homeless population was increasing and that most
shelter residents were not former welfare recipients.
In Rusk County, homelessness is more of a hidden problem. The county has no
shelters, primarily because the dispersed nature of the population makes shelters
logistically impractical. The county's major nonprofit agency used to pay for
hotel rooms for homeless persons, but funds for this purpose are no longer available.
Churches provide some assistance but not enough to fill the need. According
to local service providers, some individuals in crisis live in their cars or
are forced to remain in abusive homes. The county has a shortage of Section
8 housing, which provides housing subsidies for low-income individuals and families,
and gives priority to the elderly for what public housing there is. The quality
of public housing is poor; and although the Community Action Agency provides
federal weatherization assistance, bringing even one unit up to standard is
a formidable task.
According to calculations using HUD data, the
share of households receiving housing assistance in Wisconsin is approximately
20 percent below the state's share of low-income families (relative to the rest
of the nation). This percentage puts Wisconsin 40th among all states in the
extent to which HUD-based assistance is aligned with the state's share of low-income
families.65
At the same time, however, approximately 29 percent of Wisconsin's welfare recipients
receive HUD assistance, which is higher than the national average of 23 percent.66
MHA has attempted to bridge the housing and welfare systems by operating a
HUD-funded demonstration project, Family Self-Sufficiency. The program provides
education, training, and support services to public housing residents so that
they can overcome long-term barriers to self-sufficiency. At the time of the
study visit, MHA officials were concerned about the future of this program because
its training activities could not be used to meet JOBS or W-2 participation
requirements. MHA was seeking a waiver to have Family Self-Sufficiency training
recognized as an eligible activity for clients on welfare.
Emergency service providers have begun offering employment and training activities
in response to the new focus of welfare reform. Several operate or are developing
job readiness workshops to prepare clients for full implementation of W-2, when
clients will have to work in order to receive financial assistance.
Both Milwaukee and Rusk Counties also have reported increased demand for more
traditional emergency services beyond housing. Food pantries and meal programs,
for example, were serving more people and were not seeing the drop in demand
that normally occurs after the holiday season.
Welfare Reform Plans
As noted earlier, Wisconsin was transitioning to its new income support replacement
program, Wisconsin Works, during 1996 and early 1997. W-2 was the outgrowth
of a Democratic political challenge to Governor Thompson in 1993 to end welfare
in Wisconsin. The governor accepted this legislative challenge and through his
Department of Health and Social Services crafted a new program that reconceptualizes
public aid. W-2, as passed by the Wisconsin legislature in 1996, formed the
basis of the state's TANF planthe first such plan to gain federal approval.
In its design, Wisconsin Works is noteworthy not for any one program element
but for the way in which it brings together a comprehensive and statewide approach
to the following ideas: (1) work should be required in exchange for benefits
from day one; (2) entitlement to welfare should end; (3) the public aid system
should resemble the world of work; (4) contractors should be more accountable
for service delivery outcomes; and (5) opportunities to access aid should be
equal for all poor people, not just former AFDC recipients or single parents.
This section provides a detailed description of the Wisconsin Works program,
which was scheduled to be implemented in September 1997. Special attention is
given at the end of the chapter to immigrants and welfare reform.
The Planning Process
The Wisconsin Department of Health and Social Services was charged with designing
a new public aid program to replace welfare. As it undertook the task, the department
sought input from a broad range of stakeholders, including welfare recipients,
advocacy groups, the business community, local providers, county officials,
and various state administrative departments affected by
welfare programs, as well as from nationally recognized welfare experts. Additionally,
the planning process was informed by the state's 10 years of welfare reform
experience, which had resulted in the development of eight guiding principles:
- For those able to work, only work should pay.
- Everyone is assumed able to work; at the very
least, everyone is capable of contributing to society according to his or
her abilities.
- All policies must be judged in terms of how
well they strengthen parents' responsibility to care for their children because
families are society's way of caring for and protecting children.
- The new system's fairness should be judged
by comparing clients' situations with those of low-income working families,
not with those of clients receiving government benefits (AFDC or others).
- A new system should reward work and self-sufficiency.
- Individuals are part of communities, and a
new system should focus on how communities affect families and how communities
can support individuals as they move toward self-sufficiency.
- An individual should be provided only with
services that are needed, rather than any and all available services.
- Private-sector alternatives (e.g., market
and performance mechanisms) for providing services and managing programs should
be explored.67
That the new system should emphasize work was a given in light of the movement
in this direction through Wisconsin's several work-based demonstrations. But
officials also sought answers to many of the fundamental policy questions surrounding
welfare reform. They investigated barriers to employment such as domestic violence,
alcohol and drug abuse, and mental illness. DHSS analyzed the dynamics of its
welfare caseload, such as educational attainment, long-term dependency, work
history, and geographic distribution. The state assessed the feasibility of
a statewide work-based system of aid by examining its labor market and determining
what types of jobs program recipients could secure. It looked at the adequacy
of its child care, health care, transportation, and Earned Income Credit programs.
However, the advocacy community viewed this planning process as an in-house
activity. Although clients, advocacy groups, local providers, and county officials
were invited to one of several listening sessions, some believed that their
perspectives (on the importance of education and training, for example) were
ignored. They were also uncomfortable with the lack of available data supporting
the work-based approachalthough the state based much of W-2 on its experience
operating demonstration programs. Evaluation results on the impact of these
programs, with the exception of Learnfare, were not available.
The Department of Health and Social Services initially designed W-2, but because
of the state reorganization, the Department of Workforce Development was charged
with administering the program through its Division of Economic Support. DWD's
budget for W-2 in 1997–99 was $169.2 million.
Eligibility
W-2 has two income eligibility requirements, depending on the type of service
a client needs. For basic employment and cash assistance, the income eligibility
is similar to the old AFDC system115 percent of the federal poverty level.
For support services such as child care, the eligibility cutoff is 165 percent
of the federal poverty level for applicants and 200 percent for recipients.
W-2 also significantly raised the vehicle asset limitfrom $2,500 to $10,000.
Notably, though, W-2 eligibility does not mean entitlement to cash assistance
because W-2 was not intended as a replacement program for AFDC. Likewise, the
program changes the AFDC criteria for handling two-parent families and teen
parents. Under AFDC, eligibility rules favored single-parent families over two-parent
families, particularly by restricting to 100 the number of hours per month that
a parent in a two-parent family could work. W-2 replaced the 100-hour rule with
a single set of eligibility criteria for single-parent and two-parent families.
Minor teen parents, regardless of their income level, can meet with W-2 Financial
and Employment Planners (FEPs)Wisconsin's new case managersto discuss such
issues as the teen's education, money management, child care during school hours,
health care, food stamps, and access to community resources. Minor teen parents,
however, are no longer eligible for cash assistance.
Employment
Work is the foundation of the W-2 program. All W-2 recipientswith the exception
of single heads of households with children under three monthsare required
to participate in employment or work readiness activities. Some may be able
to find a job right away. But for those who are unprepared to go to work immediately,
the state designed an employment ladder that has four levels of participation-unsubsidized
employment, Trial Jobs, Community Service Jobs, and W-2 Transitionsto match
the varying levels of job readiness found in the welfare population.
Wisconsin's Job Centers are the primary delivery point for W-2 services. Applicants
go through an intake process such as the following to determine their employment
needs and abilities:
- A receptionist screens the applicant and determines
the intensity of services required (self, light, or specialized). If more
assistance is needed, an appointment with a resource specialist is scheduled.
- The resource specialist further assesses the
client, including the client's need for W-2 services. The resource specialist
explores all options other than financial assistance, as was done in the Work
First and Self-Sufficiency demonstrations.
- If the client is not diverted to other services
or programs, the specialist begins the W-2 application process and schedules
an appointment with an FEP.
- The FEP verifies eligibility, assesses the
client, develops an employability plan, and refers the client for other services.68
The FEP's client assessment and subsequent employability plan identifies the
best placement for the client on the W-2 employment ladder. The highest rung,
unsubsidized employment, includes any work in the private or public sector for
which the government does not provide a cash subsidy. Job-ready W-2 applicants
are required to look for unsubsidized employment as a condition of eligibility,
but the program still provides an array of supports for those who find work:
food stamps, health care, child care, Job Access Loans (see Work Supports
below), and state and federal Earned Income Credits. Participants in unsubsidized
employment do not receive a cash grant but wages from their private-sector or
public-sector employers. Employment, though, is not guaranteednor is a cash
grant for those unable to find work.
Trial Jobs, the second rung on the W-2 employment ladder, provides private-sector
employers with a wage subsidy up to $300 per month when they employ a W-2 participant.
The Trial Jobs component is intended to help W-2 clients transition into the
workforce. Employers must pay W-2 participants at least the federal or state
minimum wage, and they must commit to making a good-faith effort to offer the
participant permanent employment. Trial Jobs participation is limited to 24
months, during which time the participant is eligible for the same work supports
available to those in unsubsidized jobs.
Next on the employment ladder are Community Service Jobs (CSJs), which are
completely government-subsidized work positions for W-2 clients who have little
or no work history. CSJs give participants the opportunity to practice skills,
particularly the so-called "soft skills," necessary for unsubsidized employment.
The agency that operates W-2 in a county is responsible for developing CSJs.
These agencies must rely on local nonprofit community groups, religious organizations,
schools, government agencies, and hospitals to provide the positions. W-2 clients
in Community Service Jobs might perform maintenance or clerical work, or they
might serve as aides in schools, health care offices, or child care programs.
These jobs must add value to an organization or to the community. CSJ participants
are paid $673 per month, provided they work up to 30 hours per week and spend
up to 10 hours per week in education or training activities. They may also be
eligible for food stamps, child care, health care, and Job Access Loans, but
they are not eligible for the Earned Income Credit. Participants may work in
Community Service Jobs for only 24 months.
The fourth component of the W-2 employment ladder, W-2 Transitions (W-2 T),
is designed for those participants who face formidable barriers to employment
such as alcohol or drug dependence, homelessness, domestic violence, or some
other family crisis, or who are caring for a family member who is disabled or
has significant health problems. W-2 T provides treatment, counseling, or other
relevant activities to help participants address these problems. For some, these
activities may consume W-2 T's weekly 28-hour requirement for work-related activities.
Others may be able to seek treatment and work to some degree. Besides engaging
in 28 hours of work-related activities each week, W-2 T clients must also participate
weekly in up to 12 hours of education or training. They receive $628 per month
for their participation, plus child care, food stamps, health care, and Job
Access Loan benefits. They are not eligible for Earned Income Credits. As with
CSJs and Trial Jobs, participants can engage in W-2 T activities for only 24
months. However, because W-2 T participants face such significant barriers to
employment, they may receive extensions to the 24-month time limit on a case-by-case
basis.
The W-2 employment ladder has built-in incentives
for encouraging recipients to work at the highest level possiblethe time restrictions
(24 months in the lower three components and a five-year cumulative time limit)
and the financial remuneration (which increases as participants move up the
employment ladder). Those at the highest two levelsunsubsidized employment
and Trial Jobscan receive federal and state Earned Income Credits (the state
EIC averaged $297 in 1996).69
With income from a full-time minimum wage job, plus state and federal EICs and
food stamps, a family of three may raise itself above the federal poverty level.
Cash grants of those in the lower levels (CSJs and W-2 T) are not adjusted for
any additional income brought in to the household. However, participants who
do not fulfill program requirements get their grants reduced by the minimum
wage for each hour they fail to comply.
Education and Training
The W-2 legislation drew criticism from advocacy groups and some Democratic
legislators, who contended that the reform virtually eliminated participation
in education and training for welfare recipients. W-2's education and training
provisions are more restrictive than those of the AFDC and JOBS programs, but
the state believes that employment positions give W-2 participants the best
possible preparation for the world of work. Education and training opportunities
are part of this experience and include short-term job skills training, job
search activities, job skills development, motivational training, and life skills
training. While W-2 participants are not prohibited from enrolling in postsecondary
education, the program does not provide a cash grant for this purpose and child
care assistance is limited. Rather, W-2 clients must find state or federal financial
aid for education. W-2 does offer the Employment Skills Advancement Program
(ESAP) for those working in unsubsidized employment for at least nine months.
To be eligible for ESAP, participants may earn up to 165 percent of the federal
poverty level. ESAP grants are for the direct costs of education and training
and are limited to $500. The ESAP applicant must match these funds with personal
resources and with matching funds from a third party (e.g., employer, private
individuals).
Work Supports
Because W-2 is a work-based program, the state placed a premium on the services
that support employment. In particular, Wisconsin focused on its child care
and health care systems and reevaluated how child support payments could better
serve W-2 participants. An overarching goal guiding the delivery of these supports
is the creation of a system that is fair to the working poor. Therefore, medical
plans introduce copayments, an end to health care entitlement, and a system
that allows private providers such as HMOs to deliver services to recipients.
As noted earlier, the state did not receive federal waiver approval for the
health care portion of W-2, so the program's health care component resembles
the state's Medical Assistance program, which operated prior to W-2 (see Programs
That Promote Financial Independence). Wisconsin Works also introduced child
care copayments. It does provide transportation assistance and financial aid
through its Job Access Loan program.
Child Care
As noted earlier, Wisconsin's W-2 child care system consolidates low-income
and AFDC-related child care into one program. Continuity of care was a serious
problem under the old AFDC system, especially when welfare recipients started
working. For example, a recipient who left AFDC for work could receive up to
12 months of Transitional Child Care under the Consolidated AFDC Child Care
funding stream. After 12 months, the recipient had to switch to low-income child
care, which sometimes created gaps in coverage, causing the worker to lose employment
and return to the welfare rolls.
W-2 eliminates the various funding streams for low-income and AFDC child care
and creates a new, more integrated program. An advantage of this approach is
that the state can focus its child care resources on low-income families more
generally, rather than just on welfare recipients. The state's new child care
eligibility requirements reflect this change. Child care is available for children
age 12 and under in low-income families with incomes up to 165 percent of the
federal poverty level, regardless of previous welfare receipt. (Some families
who were receiving Low Income or Transitional Child Care in May 1996 are grandfathered
in at 200 percent of the federal poverty level.) Once participants are eligible
for W-2 child care, they continue to be eligible for government-subsidized care
until their income reaches 200 percent of the federal poverty level. Child care
is available only for individuals who work or who participate in approved training
activities. Teen parents can also access W-2 child care to attend school or
obtain a GED; parents with disabled children over age 12 are not eligible
for assistance.
Wisconsin not only consolidated its child care funding streams, it increased
its financial commitment threefoldallocating some $150 million in the 1995–97
biennial budget to address child care supply issues. An additional $6 million
was allocated for child care grants to agencies.
Another innovation of W-2 child care is the program's copayment system. Families
generally did not contribute to child care expenses under the old AFDC system,
although low-income child care did impose some copayments. But W-2 subjects
everyone to a copayment calculated via a sliding-scale formula that takes into
account income, family size, category of care, and number of children a parent
has in subsidized care. One of the first child care copayment schedules the
state devised resulted in implicit marginal tax rates that gave families at
higher income levels less disposable income than those at lower levels. The
schedule was revised to minimize this tax effect; it also caps copayments at
16 percent of a family's gross income.
Finally, Wisconsin addressed the issue of supply by introducing a new category
of regulated child careprovisionally certified providers. These providers do
not require the same level of training as do Wisconsin's other types of child
care providerslicensed group centers, licensed family day care providers, and
regularly certified family day care providers, who must meet training requirements,
extensive health and safety standards, and staff qualification standards, and
who must be monitored regularly for compliance. Provisionally certified providers
must meet only minimal health and safety standards and undergo a site visit
and criminal check. The state created this new level of provider so that W-2
participants could leave their children in less formal settings, such as with
relatives and neighbors. However, child care advocates have voiced concern that
this new category of provider might lower the quality of care that children
of W-2 participants receive.
Transportation and Job Access Loans
Transportation assistance is another key support for welfare recipients who
want to work. In Wisconsin's rural areas, welfare recipients often have to find
their own transportation to and from work because there is limited, if any,
public transportation. In urban areas such as Milwaukee, jobs are often located
in outlying areas, beyond the public transportation system; or the work schedule
is during off-peak times, when public transportation is not available. W-2 addresses
these problems in a number of ways. First, the state raised the vehicle asset
limit from $2,500 to $10,000, thus enabling W-2 participants to own more reliable
cars. Second, Wisconsin places some responsibility on the agency running the
W-2 program to identify and facilitate transportation for its clients. The state
also allocated $3 million in the 1997–99 biennial budget for Employment Transportation
Assistance, which might include such options as transit service expansion, reverse
commute services, transportation support in rural areas, and employer initiatives.
W-2's Job Access Loan program can also be used to address transportation issues.
These short-term, no-interest loans are available to W-2 participants who have
an immediate financial need for which they do not have the resources to pay.
Loans can only be used for purposes that support employment, such as for car
repairs or down payments, moving costs, uniforms, rent, or security deposits.
The loan amount can range from $25 to $1,600, and participants have 24 months
for repayment. At least 25 percent of the loan must be repaid in cash. The balance
can be repaid with in-kind services to the community.
Child Support
Receiving court-ordered child support can often make the difference in a person's
ability to achieve self-sufficiency and remain off welfare. Wisconsin officials
report that the consistent and timely payment of child support is a leading
reason why welfare families leave public aid.
W-2 significantly changes the way in which child support is distributed to
individuals who depend on government aid. Under the old AFDC system, the government
retained all but the first $50 collected on behalf of an AFDC family to offset
state and federal collection costs. Under W-2, all child support that is collected
passes through to W-2 recipients who are in employment positions and counts
toward their initial and ongoing income eligibility requirements of W-2. Officials
estimate that this pass-through will cost the state and federal governments
more than $15 million in FY 1998. This change in child support distribution
is part of a demonstration waiver; individuals assigned to the control group
will receive either 40 percent of the amount paid or $50, whichever is greater.
As in the old AFDC system, W-2 participants must still cooperate with the local
child support agency in establishing the paternity of their children. The Children
First program for noncustodial parents is also continued under W-2. (See Programs
That Promote Financial Independence for a full description of Children First.)
Finally, W-2 offers job search assistance and case management services to interested
noncustodial parents (noncustodial parents are placed into Children First via
court order). These parents are eligible for such services only if the custodial
parent is already participating in W-2 and if the noncustodial parent has a
child support order in place or is cooperating in establishing one.
Service Delivery
Besides changing specific elements of the old
AFDC program, W-2 also alters the way in which services are delivered to public
aid recipients. Prior to W-2, Wisconsin's 72 counties provided services to AFDC
recipients under contract with the state Department of Health and Social Services.
Under W-2, counties must earn the right to provide services by meeting state-mandated
performance standards, such as reducing caseloads by 25 percent and increasing
participation in work activities (numbers of participants and hours of participation).
All but five of Wisconsin's counties met these standards; and another seven
counties declined to run W-2 despite having met the performance criteria. As
a result, Wisconsin issued requests for proposals to have private contractors
run W-2 in these counties. In the end, a mix of entities will serve as W-2 agencies:
counties, private for-profits, and private nonprofits.70
Milwaukee County presented a special case. It did not retain the right of first
selection to operate W-2. Because of the scope of the Milwaukee service area
and because more than half of Wisconsin's AFDC recipients live there, the state
decided to divide Milwaukee into six service regions. Service delivery within
these regions was then contracted out on a competitive basis. Five agencies
will run W-2 in the six regionsGoodwill Industries (two regions), MAXIMUS,
Opportunities Industrialization Center, United Migrant Opportunities Services,
and the YWCA. Except for MAXIMUS, which is a for-profit firm based in Virginia,
all of the Milwaukee W-2 agencies are locally based nonprofits that have operated
JOBS or the Food Stamp Employment and Training programs.
In Milwaukee, the Private Industry Council (PIC), which oversees local JTPA
program administration, will play a unique role in the implementation of W-2.
It will oversee the various organizations that operate the program and evaluate
the contracting process, performance monitoring, and coordination among the
five agencies across the county. The PIC is in a good position to do this since
it is at once a county-based organization and a nonprofit entity separate from
county government. The PIC will also provide technical assistance to W-2 providers
and feedback on operations to the state.
At the time of the Wisconsin site visit, the PIC was in the process of negotiating
a contract with the state to perform these various oversight functions and was
holding regular meetings with prospective W-2 providers. Because there will
be five separate W-2 agencies operating W-2 in Milwaukee, there was some concern
that service quality might vary and that inequitable treatment might result.
In response to this concern, the PIC and W-2 contractors were attempting to
negotiate basic standards of operation.
All of the W-2 agencies in Wisconsin have entered into similar contracts with
DWD to run W-2. These contracts give the agencies a great deal of flexibility
in how they deliver services to clients. Unlike the old AFDC system that paid
for each unit of service they provided, W-2 contractors will be paid a fixed
amount to provide all W-2 services. The fixed contract amounts are based on
W-2 budget assumptions and include such expenditures as cash benefits, child
care expenditures, projected caseloads, and administrative costs. W-2 agencies
can profit under these contracts by providing services at a lower cost than
is allocated to them, up to 7 percent of their contract. If an agency realizes
a profit beyond 7 percent, it may retain 10 percent of the additional amount
for unrestricted use, it must reinvest 45 percent of the additional amount in
the community, and it must return the remaining 45 percent to the state. Finally,
W-2 agencies can incur financial penalties for failing to provide services to
eligible clients. The penalty is $5,000 for each instance of such failure.
The performance-based nature and profitmaking potential of W-2 contracts troubled
some in the advocacy and nonprofit sectors. Both provisions, these groups believe,
might deter agencies from serving certain clients, especially those with barriers
to employment. W-2 agencies, they hypothesized, may not want to spend extra
money (especially since contract amounts are fixed) to serve clients who may
have poor outcomes. Even though W-2 agencies can be fined for failing to serve
eligible families, clients must initiate the complaint process, but the right
to a fair hearing (in place under the old AFDC system) is eliminated. Because
W-2 does not entitle its recipients to benefits, Wisconsin is not legally required
to give recipients the same due process as under AFDC. As a result, W-2 agencies
can formulate their own dispute resolution process. Advocates were concerned
that these processes might treat clients arbitrarily.
Implementation Challenges and Issues
Wisconsin policymakers are confident that local providers will have few difficulties
implementing W-2, since most W-2 agencies have previously conducted welfare
reform programs. Concerns at the state level tended to be logistical in nature,
for example, adapting the state's computer system to handle the conversion to
W-2 or ironing out specific language in W-2 policy manuals.
At the local level, though, service providers highlighted additional challenges
that would have to be overcome to implement W-2 successfully. Officials in Rusk
County noted that small communities such as theirs lacked the infrastructure
on which to build the Community Service Jobs and Transitional Jobs components.
These areas have few agencies and organizations at which to place clients. Furthermore,
with a high unemployment rate, the area has few unsubsidized jobs available.
How places like Rusk County, with little economic growth and high unemployment
rates, will be able to develop jobs was unclear. Even in Milwaukee County, which
has more options for Community Service Jobs, there was concern about having
enough subsidized jobs to meet the need; some officials perceived their caseload
as containing more "hard-to-serve" clients who would be unable to succeed immediately
in unsubsidized employment. One program operator in Milwaukee estimated that
his agency would need at least 1,600 CSJ positions to accommodate the potential
participants. Another official cited a much higher number10,000 slots for the
county as a whole. At the time of the site visits, 500 to 600 subsidized positions
had been developed. Milwaukee County staff were taking the lead in developing
CSJ placements for all W-2 agencies to avoid inundating Milwaukee employers
with requests from multiple sources.
Prior to the release of W-2 contract bids, many nonprofits were concerned that
their agencies might not have a formal role in W-2, yet they might be overwhelmed
by clients who were dropped from W-2 rolls. As a result, a number of these organizations
in Milwaukee County joined forces to develop proposals to run W-2. Their proposals
focused on the links they had with other nonprofits and the larger community.
These nonprofits won contracts to run W-2, and their focus expanded from providing
programs and activities that supplemented government services (e.g., advocacy,
food pantries, neighborhood-based activities) to providing government programs
as well.
The implications of W-2 for the nonprofit sector in general were unclear. Even
before W-2 implementation, nonprofit leaders reported feeling "stretched from
both sides"caseloads are unwieldy, and their staff are already burned out.
Although some in this community were cautiously supportive of W-2, believing
in the program's philosophy of work, others were very troubled by the demise
of entitlement. Nonprofit leaders and emergency service providers recognized
that W-2 could help some people get jobs and move out of poverty, but they were
concerned about those who might fall through the cracks.
Some officials in Milwaukee questioned whether the performance criteria set
by the state during the right of first selection process were deliberately designed
to preclude the county from running W-2. At the time of the site visits, it
was unclear what role the county would play. Since the Medicaid and Food Stamp
programs were not operating as block grants at the federal level, staff in private
agencies running W-2 are unable to perform eligibility functions for these programs.
Most likely, Milwaukee County staff will continue to determine eligibility for
these programs and possibly for cash assistance under W-2.
Another issue of concern is the treatment of adults receiving Supplemental
Security Income (SSI). Adult SSI recipients are exempt from W-2 participation,
but their children receive a W-2 grant. The grant amount, $77 per child, is
much lower than that awarded under AFDC ($248 per month for one child). In December
1996, approximately 10,700 children were living in families in which the household
head received SSI. How these families will fare under W-2 is a concern for many
advocates and service providers.
Advocacy groups and Democratic leaders have also criticized the W-2 legislation
because it did not call for any formal program evaluation. In August 1996, Governor
Thompson introduced the Wisconsin Works Management and Evaluation Project (W-2
MEP), intended to serve as an umbrella organization for both state-sponsored
and outside studies of W-2. At the time of the Wisconsin site visit, an MEP
steering committee was being formed that was expected to establish a research
agenda for evaluating W-2.
Immigrants and Welfare Reform
Federal welfare reform significantly altered immigrant policy by restricting
legal immigrants' access to federal assistance programs and by giving states
greater discretion in determining immigrants' eligibility for public benefits.
For the first time, receipt of public benefits became dependent on citizenship
status, not legal presence. Federal welfare reform also made it harder for new
immigrants (those arriving after the passage of the Personal Responsibility
and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 on August 22, 1996) to access
federal public benefit programs than it was for immigrants already residing
in the United States.
Although Wisconsin's noncitizen population is
below the national averageat 2.1 percent, compared with 6.4 percent nationally71the
large concentration of Hmong refugees in the state contributed to Wisconsin's
relatively generous decisions regarding immigrant eligibility for benefits.
While 7.4 percent of the U.S. foreign-born population are refugees, 10.9 percent
of Wisconsin's foreign-born are refugees,72
primarily Laotian Hmongmany of whom fought with the United States during the
war in Vietnam. From 1983 to 1995, 16,366 refugees entered Wisconsin, 75 percent
of whom were Laotian.73
In 1995, Wisconsin had more Laotian refugees than any other state.
PRWORA and Subsequent Federal Reforms
Originally, PRWORA barred most legal immigrants from the Food Stamp and SSI
programs. Wisconsin estimated that 7,200 immigrants would lose food stamps as
a result of this policy. One year later, Congress restored benefits to immigrants
who were receiving SSI as of August 22, 1996 (the date of PRWORA's passage)
and to other current immigrants, who were not receiving SSI but who qualified
for benefits because of a disability. Congress also authorized states to purchase
food stamps to distribute to legal immigrants no longer eligible for the federal
program. A year after that, Congress acted again, restoring federal Food Stamp
eligibility for certain legal immigrants, including children (under 18 years
old), elderly immigrants who were at least 65 years old on August 22, 1996,
and disabled immigrantsall of whom must have been lawfully present in the United
States on August 22, 1996.
State Food Stamp Program
Prior to the benefits restoration of federal
food stamps, Wisconsin appropriated $4.6 million for FY 199974
to implement a state program for purchasing federal food stamps for immigrants
who lost eligibility for the federal program as a result of PRWORA. A driving
force behind the creation of this new program was public support for the provision
of benefits to Wisconsin's Hmong immigrants on the same terms as these benefits
are accorded to U.S. citizens. Wisconsin's Food Stamp program, unlike most of
the dozen or so newly created state Food Stamp programs, fully restored benefits
to immigrants who lost federal eligibility. It provides benefits to working-age
adults and new immigrantstwo groups not covered by most other state programs
or the federal restorations. The program also provides benefits at the same
level as the federal Food Stamp program.
TANF and Medicaid
PRWORA gave states the option to provide TANF
and Medicaid (nonemergency services) to immigrants residing in the United States
as of August 22, 1996. Wisconsin, like most states, has opted to continue providing
TANF and Medicaid to these current immigrants. Federal welfare reform bars new
immigrantsthose arriving after August 22, 1996from TANF and Medicaid for their
first five years in the country. Wisconsin has chosen to use state funds to
provide TANF, but not Medicaid, to these immigrants during this five-year ban.
Like all TANF applicants in Wisconsin, these new qualified immigrants will be
ineligible for TANF for their first 60 days in the state (or the country). For
immigrants receiving state-funded TANF, the state will impose "sponsor deeming"
until these immigrants become citizens. Under sponsor deeming, the income of
an immigrant's sponsor is deemed available to the immigrant, making most ineligible
for benefits.75
However, many immigrants on public assistance in Wisconsin are refugees, who
are exempt from the five-year ban. In addition, if immigrants are subject to
sponsor deeming but their sponsors are not supporting them financially, they
may be exempted from deeming for one year by qualifying for a federal "indigence"
exemption. After the five-year ban Wisconsin will make new immigrants eligible
for both TANF and Medicaid but, again, sponsor deeming will be imposed, rendering
most immigrants ineligible.
State Safety Net Programs
Wisconsin originally estimated that 4,600 immigrants would lose SSI benefits
because of PRWORA. Before the federal restorations, the pending loss of SSI
benefits was the chief concern of state officials and immigrant advocates alike;
however, the state has not provided substitute services to immigrants slated
to lose SSI benefits. After the federal restorations, immigrants no longer eligible
for SSI (primarily new immigrants) may be left without a state safety net. The
General Relief program, while potentially available to some new immigrants,
is not a substitute for SSI and derivative Medicaid benefits because (1) not
all counties offer the program; (2) new immigrants may not be eligible for services;
and (3) services vary by county.
Naturalization Initiative
Although the state did not appropriate any funds for naturalization initiatives
in response to the federal welfare law's immigrant restrictions, Dane County,
which incorporates Madison and is Wisconsin's second-largest county, appropriated
$10,000 in FY 1997 for naturalization assistance. These funds were allocated
to a local community-based organization to conduct citizenship training for
refugees at risk of losing public benefits.
Conclusion
Wisconsin's approach to income support and social services for low-income families
represents a departure from traditional service delivery approaches. The state's
consistently healthy economy, steady revenue growth, low unemployment rates,
and low rates of child poverty, coupled with a politically strong governor,
have provided an environment for experimenting with new policies and programs.
The combination of these factors culminated in a work-based system of welfare
reform, W-2, that completely changed the focus of public aid.
In 1996 and early 1997, Wisconsin was in transition. The state had just reorganized
and consolidated its administrative structure for income support and employment
and training programs and was preparing to implement W-2. The state's takeover
of the child welfare system in Milwaukee County was imminent as well.
With few exceptions, Wisconsin has given its counties and other local governing
bodies responsibility for delivering services in a broad range of areas: income
support, employment and training, child support, child welfare, and child care.
Additionally, Wisconsin has decategorized its Community Aids program, the mechanism
for providing state and federal human service funds, in order to give counties
greater flexibility in providing these services. Despite granting counties and
local governing bodies responsibility for running income support and social
service programs, most policy development and direction still comes from the
state.
Wisconsin's current policies and programs, particularly
in the area of income support, are built on a decade of experimentation with
welfare. These early innovations, which emphasized the family, personal responsibility,
and work, provided the opportunity for the state to build the infrastructure
for broad-based reform. How well Wisconsin fares in implementing Wisconsin Works76
and what outcomes the program produces for participants are important questions
that will likely have lessons and implications for other states and have significant
ramifications for Wisconsin's low-income population.
Notes
1. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the
United States: 1996. Washington, D.C., 1996.
2. In 1990, Hispanics were 6.3 percent of the population and
Asians just under 2 percent.
3. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Estimates of the Population
of Counties. March 20, 1997.
4. Wisconsin Council on Children and Families, WisKids
Count Data Book: A Portrait of Child Well-Being in Wisconsin. Madison, Wis.,
1994.
5. The Annie E. Casey Foundation, City Kids Count.
Baltimore, Md., 1997.
6. U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book:
1994. Washington, D.C., 1994.
7. As computed by the Institute for Research on Poverty, University
of Wisconsin, using 1990 Census tract data. See http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/irp/faq4.htm.
8. Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations, State
of Wisconsin, Lowest Unemployment Rate Since 1969. Press Release, February
3, 1997.
9. Wisconsin Department of Commerce, Wisconsin Economic
Performance. September 6, 1995. See http://badger.state.wi.us/agencies/dod/html/perform.html.
10. Wisconsin Department of Commerce, Wisconsin Economic
Profile. March 9, 1998. See http://badger.state.wi.us/agencies/dod/html/econp703.html.
11. S. Walters, "Governor's Vetoes Remold State Budget: Changes
to Go Unchallenged." Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. October 12, 1997.
12. R. Reinhardt, Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau, General
Fund Tax Collections: Report #1. 1997.
13. Division of Executive Budget and Finance, Department
of Administration, State of Wisconsin: Budget in Brief. February 1997.
14. A. Rinard, "Assembly OKs $37 Billion Budget." Milwaukee
Journal Sentinel. September 17, 1997.
15. A. Rinard, "Stop Meddling, Local Officials Tell Legislators."
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. September 22, 1997.
16. Wisconsin Governor's Office, Largest FY98 GPR Increases
over Base. See http://www.wisgov.state.wi.us/images/table1b.gif.
17. Wisconsin Governor's Office, "Appendix 1: Summary of
All Funds Appropriations, Governor's RecommendationsFY98,"and "Appendix 2:
Summary of All Funds Appropriations, Governor's RecommendationsFY99." See http://www.wisgov.state.wi.us/images/apdx1.gif
and http://www.wisgov.state.wi.us/images/apdx2.gif.
18. Bureau of Welfare Initiatives, Division of Economic Support,
Department of Workforce Development, Interoffice Memo. March 17, 1997.
19. Database Monitoring Branch, Program Information Division,
Financial Management, Food and Nutrition Services, United States Department
of Agriculture, Food Stamps Household Participation FY96 and Food
Stamps Individual Participation FY96.
20. Department of Workforce Development, Data for February
1996, Interoffice Memo. March 17, 1997.
21. Division of Research and Analysis, Wisconsin Department
of Treasury, Wisconsin Earned Income Tax Credit: Summary for 1996. See http://badger.state.wi.us/agencies/dor/ra/
eitc98.html.
22. R. Cissne, Wisconsin Legislative Audit Bureau, Supplemental
Security Income Program. Madison, Wis., 1997.
23. J. Simpson, R. Reinhardt, R. Megna, C. Morgan, and A.
Goldman, Wisconsin Legislative Audit Bureau, Wisconsin Works: W-2, Attachment
III. Madison, Wis., 1997.
24. Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Change in Welfare Caseloads as of September,
1997. See http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/news/case-fam.htm.
25. Database Monitoring Branch, Program Information Division,
Financial Management, Food and Nutrition Services, United States Department
of Agriculture, Food Stamps Household Participation FY94 and Food
Stamps Household Participation FY97.
26. Division of Research and Analysis, Wisconsin Department
of Treasury, Wisconsin Earned Income Tax Credit: Summary for 1996. See
http://badger.state.wi.us/agencies/dor/ra/
eitc98.html.
27. R. Cissne, Wisconsin Legislative Audit Bureau, data reported
in Supplemental Security Income Program. Madison, Wis., 1997.
28. R. Cissne, Wisconsin Legislative Audit Bureau, Supplemental
Security Income Program. Madison, Wis., 1997.
29. State of Wisconsin, Work Not Welfare Progress Report,
January 1995–August 1996. 1996.
30. State of Wisconsin, Wisconsin Welfare Reform: A History
of Progress, a Plan for the Future. April 1996.
31. P. Holcomb et al. Building an Employment Focused Welfare
System: Work First and Other Work-Oriented Strategies in Five States. Report
prepared for the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation,
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1998.
32. Reported both by respondents and in the New York Times,
"Cutting Welfare Rolls but Raising Questions." May 7, 1997.
33. Department of Workforce Development, The Partnership
for Full Employment. See http://www.dwd.state.wi.us/desw2/W2_PFE.htm.
34. Human Resource Investment Council, Standards 1997, Wisconsin's
Job Center Standards. January 7, 1997, p. 10.
35. Ibid. at pp. 10–12.
36. Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of Representatives,
1996 Green Book, p. 419.
37. Ibid. at p. 427.
38. Ibid. at p. 637.
39. Ibid. at p. 421.
40. The child care disregard was extended to AFDC recipients
who were working or attending school. Income spent on child care, up to a maximum
amount, was disregarded for purposes of AFDC eligibility. For each child under
two, the disregard limit was $200 per month. For each child age two and above,
the disregard limit was $175.
41. Division of Economic Support, Wisconsin Department of
Workforce Development, Wisconsin Works, Child Support. See http://www.dwd.state.wi.us/desw2/W2ChildSupport.htm.
42. Governor Tommy Thompson, Wisconsin Welfare Reform:
A History of Progress, a Plan for the Future. April 1996, p. 6.
43. Ibid.
44. Division of Economic Support, Wisconsin Department of
Workforce Development, Wisconsin Works, Child Support. See http://www.dwd.state.wi.us/desw2/W2ChildSupport.htm.
45. R. Reinhart, Legislative Fiscal Bureau. Child Support
Enforcement #46, pp. 23–24.
46. Governor Tommy Thompson, Wisconsin Welfare Reform:
A History of Progress, a Plan for the Future. April 1996, p. 6.
47. Ibid.
48. R. Reinhart, Legislative Fiscal Bureau, Child Support
Enforcement #46, p. 25.
49. Ibid. at Attachments I and II.
50. Information Data System, Bureau of Child Support, Department
of Workforce Development. See http://www.dwd.state.wi.us/bcs/kids.htm.
51. Ibid. at p. 6.
52. R. Reinhart, Legislative Fiscal Bureau, Child Support
Enforcement #46, p. 12.
53. For more information on health care services in Wisconsin,
see this report's companion piece, Health Policy for Low-Income People in
Wisconsin.
54. A. Goldman, Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau, County
Relief Block Grant Program. 1997.
55. Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Services, Wisconsin
Child Abuse and Neglect Annual Report: 1995 Data. 1996.
56. Ibid.
57. M. Courtney and L. Park, Bureau of Children, Youth and
Families, Division of Community Services, Wisconsin Department of Health and
Social Services, Children in Out-of-Home Care in Wisconsin: 1988 through
1994. March 1996.
58. This count does not include placements of children in
the home of an unlicensed relative. This practice is far more common in Milwaukee
County than in others and was estimated to account for placements of approximately
1,400 children.
59. Wisconsin Department of Health and Social Services, Children
in Out-of-Home Care in Wisconsin: 1988 through 1994. March 1996.
60. Ibid.
61. Wisconsin State Statutes, Chapter 48, "Children's Code,"
with revisions as 1995 Wisconsin Act 275.
62. Ibid.
63. P. Borniec, D. Loppnow, R. Megna, C. Morgan, and R. Reinhart,
Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau, Wisconsin Works (W-2) 1995 Wisconsin
Act 289: Summary of Provisions.
64. State of Wisconsin Consolidated Plan for 1995, Executive
Summary. See http://www.hud.gov/cpes/wi/statewi.html.
65. T. Kingsley, The Urban Institute, Federal Housing
Assistance and Welfare Reform: Uncharted Territory. 1997.
66. B. Sard and J. Daskal, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities,
Housing and Welfare Reform: Some Background Information. 1998.
67. Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, Program
Narrative, Wisconsin Works. 1996.
68. Division of Economic Support, Wisconsin Department of
Workforce Development, Wisconsin Works Manual. January 1, 1998, sections
1.6.3.1–1.6.3.3.
69. Division of Research and Analysis, Wisconsin Department
of Treasury, Wisconsin Earned Income Tax Credit. See http://badger.state.wi.us/agencies/dor/ra/eitc98.html.
70. Forest Service Corporation holds the contracts in Forest,
Kewaunee, Oneida, and Vilas Counties; the Western Wisconsin Private Industry
Council will run the program in Juneau County; the Shawno County Job Center,
Inc., holds the W-2 contract in that county; and the Kaiser Group, Inc., will
run W-2 in Walworth County. (One Native American tribe will continue to operate
directly under federal law. Another tribe will receive W-2 service from existing
income maintenance and JOBS providers. Three other tribes won and exercised
their right of first selection.)
71. Three-year average based on Urban Institute tabulations
of the March 1995, 1996, and 1997 Current Population Survey (CPS) files.
72. The percentage of Wisconsin's foreign-born population
who are refugees was calculated using a three-year average of CPS data for the
foreign-born population in the state. The number of refugees was estimated using
Office of Refugee Resettlement data for the number of refugees entering Wisconsin
between FY 1983 and FY 1995. (These data were taken from Refugee Resettlement
Program: Report to the Congress, FY 1995. U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Refugee
Resettlement, pp. A-7–A-12.) The percentage of the U.S. foreign-born population
who are refugees comes from Jeffrey S. Passel and Rebecca L. Clark, Immigrants
in New York: Their Status, Incomes, and Taxes. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
April 1998, p. 82.
73. Office of Refugee Resettlement, Administration for Children
and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Refugee Resettlement
Program: Report to the Congress, FY 1995, pp. A-7–A-12.
74. The program was scheduled for implementation on August
1, 1998.
75. Prior to welfare reform, deeming lasted for three years
for AFDC and was not applied to Medicaid.
76. For one perspective on this issue see J. DeParle, "Wisconsin
Welfare Experiment: Easy to Say, Not So Easy to Do." New York Times,
October 18, 1998.
Appendix
List of Interview sources
State-Level Respondent
Agencies/Organizations: Madison
Office of the Governor
Wisconsin State Senate
Wisconsin State Assembly
Legislative Fiscal Bureau
Department
of Workforce Development
Division of Economic Support
Bureau of Child Care
Bureau of Child Support
Office of Refugee Resettlement
Division of Workforce Excellence
Management Operations
Bureau of Welfare Initiatives
Department of AdministrationHousing
Department of Public InstructionEarly Childhood Education
Wisconsin Association of Counties
Wisconsin Council on Children and Families
Local Respondent Agencies/Organizations:
Milwaukee
Office of the Mayor
Office of the County Executive
Department of Administration
Milwaukee County Department of Human Services
Executive StaffIncome
Support and Child Welfare
Local Office Managers and Line StaffIncome Support and Child Welfare
Milwaukee Private Industry
Council
Milwaukee Job Center North
City Health Department
Department of City Development
Milwaukee Housing Authority
Milwaukee Department of Housing and Neighborhood Development
Planning Council for Health and Human Services
Archdiocese of Milwaukee
Catholic Charities
Community Advocates
Hope House
Interfaith Conference of Greater Milwaukee
New Concepts
Next Door Foundation
Opportunities Industrialization Centers
Rosalie Manor
Silver Spring Neighborhood Center
Local Respondent Agencies/Organizations:
Rusk County
Rusk County Department of Social Services
Executive StaffIncome
Support and Child Welfare
Local Office Managers and Line StaffIncome Support and Child Welfare
Indianhead Community Action
Agency
Tables
|
|
|
Table 1
Wisconsin State Characteristics, 1995
|
|
|
Wisconsin
|
United States
|
|
Population characteristics
|
|
|
Population
(1995)a (in thousands)
|
5,146 |
260,202
|
Percent
under 18 (1995)a
|
27.9% |
26.8% |
Percent
Hispanic (1995)a
|
1.7% |
10.7% |
Percent
Non-Hispanic Black (1995)a
|
6.3%
|
12.5%
|
Percent
Noncitizen Immigrant (1996)b
|
2.1%
|
6.4%
|
Percent
Rural (1990)c
|
49.6%
|
36.4%
|
Population
Growth (19901995)d
|
4.7%
|
5.6%
|
Births
per 1,000 Women ages 15-44 (1994)e |
59.9
|
66.7
|
Percent
to Unmarried Women (1994)e |
27.2%
|
32.6%
|
Percent
to Women under 20 That Were Nonmarital (1994)e |
84%
|
76%
|
Per
1,000 Women ages 15-19 (1994)e |
39
|
59
|
|
|
|
State economic characteristics
|
|
|
Per
Capita Income (1995)f |
$22,261 |
$23,208
|
Percent
Change in Per Capita Income (1990–95)f, g |
25.6% |
21.2%
|
Percent
below Poverty(1994)h |
9.9%
|
14.3%
|
Unemployment
Rate (1996)i |
3.5%
|
5.4%
|
Employment
Rate (1996)i, j |
72.1%
|
63.2%
|
Percent
Jobs in Manufacturing (1995)k |
22.3%
|
16.0%
|
Percent
Jobs in Service Sector (1995)k |
21.1%
|
23.1%
|
Percent
Jobs in Public Sector (1995)k |
13.2%
|
14.7%
|
|
|
|
Family profile
|
|
|
Percent
Two-Parent Families (1994)h, l |
38.3%
|
35.7%
|
Percent
One-Parent Families (1994)h, m |
13.9%
|
13.8%
|
Percent
Mothers with Child age 12 or under |
|
|
Working
Full Time (1994)h, n |
45.0%
|
38.1%
|
Working
Part Time (1994)h, o |
22.4%
|
16.1%
|
In
Two-Parent Families and Working (1994)h, p |
50.5%
|
40.3%
|
In
One-Parent Families and Working (1994)h, p |
17.0%
|
13.9%
|
Percent
Children below Poverty (1994)h |
14.4%
|
21.7%
|
Median
Income of Families with Children (1994)h |
$42,996 |
$37,109
|
Percent
Children Uninsured (1995)a |
4.9% |
10.0%
|
|
|
|
Political
|
|
|
Governor's
Affiliation (1996)q |
R
|
|
Party
Control of Senate (1996)q |
17D-16R
|
|
Party
Control of House (1996)q |
47D-52R
|
|
|
a. Two-year concatenated March Current Population
Survey (CPS) files, 1995 and 1996. These files are edited using the Urban Institute's
Trim2 microsimulation model. Excludes those in families with active military
members.
b. CPS three-year average (March 1996–March 1998,
where 1996 is the center year), edited by the Urban Institute to correct misreporting
of citizenship.
c. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of
Population: General Population Characteristics. Washington, D.C., 1992.
d. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract
of the United States: 1996 (116th edition). Washington, D.C., 1996. 1995
population as of July 1. 1990 population as of April 1.
e. U.S. National Center for Health Statistics,
Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 44, No. 3 & Vol. 44, No. 11.
f. State Personal Income, 1969–1995. CD-ROM.
Washington, D.C.: Regional economic Measurement Division (BE-55), Bureau of
Economic Analysis, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Department
of Commerce, October 1996.
g. Computed using midyear population estimates
of the Bureau of the Census.
h. CPS three-year average (March 1994–March 1996,
where 1994 is the center year) edited using the Urban Institute's TRIM2 microsimulation
model.
i. U.S. Department of Labor, State and Regional
Unemployment, 1996 Annual Averages, USDL 97–88. Washington, D.C., March
18, 1997.
j. Employment rate is calculated using the civilian
noninstitutionalized population 16 years of age and over.
k. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1995 Geographic
Profile of Employment and Unemployment.
l. Percent of all families (two or more related
persons living in the same household) that include one or more related children
and in which the head of the family is not married and nonelderly.
m. Percent of all families (two or more related
persons living in the same household) that include one or more related children
and in which the head of the family is nonelderly and married, and the spouse
is present.
n. Full-time work is defined as at least 1,750
hours per year (50 weeks x 35 hours per week).
o. Part-time work is defined as at least 910 hours
per year (52 weeks x 17.5 hours per week) and less than 1,750 hours per year
(50 weeks x 35 hours per week).
p. Working is defined as working at least 910 hours
per year (52 weeks x 17.5 hours per week).
q. National Conference of State Legislatures, 1997
partisan Composition, May 7 Update. D indicates Democrat, R indicates Republican.
|
|
|
Table 2
Organizational structure
of Social Welfare Programs
|
|
Program
|
State
Agency Location |
Local
Administrative Arrangement |
|
|
|
|
Income
Security
|
|
|
AFDC
|
DWD,
DES |
County
DHS/DSS |
Food
Stamps
|
DWD, DES |
County
DHS/DSS |
|
|
|
Education
and Training
|
|
|
JOBS
|
DWD, DES |
County
DHS/DSS |
JTPA
|
DWD, Workforce
Excellence |
17 Local SDAs
|
Employment
Services |
DWD,
Workforce Excellence |
Local Job
Service offices |
|
|
|
Child
Care/Child Development |
|
|
Child
Care |
DWD,
DES |
County DHS/DSS |
Head
Start |
Public Instruction/DWD, DES*
|
Local grantees |
Other
Child Development |
|
Local grantees |
|
|
|
Child
Support Enforcement
|
DWD, DES
|
County DHS/DSS
|
|
|
|
Child
Welfare |
|
|
Child
Protection/FamilyPres |
DHFS, Child and Family Services (DCFS) |
County DHS/DSS
|
Foster
Care |
DHFS,
DCFS |
County
DHS/DSS |
Adoption
Assistance |
DHFS, DCFS |
County
DHS/DSS |
|
|
|
Emergency
Services |
|
|
State
Emergency Assistance
|
DWD, DES |
County DHS/DSS
|
Homeless
Programs
|
Administration Housing
|
Local shelters
|
|
|
|
Refugees |
DWD, DES |
Community-based
organization |
|
|
|
Health |
|
|
Medicaid |
DHFS, Health |
County DHS/DSS
|
General
Relief |
DHFS, Health |
County DHS/DSS,
optional |
|
|
|
|
*The Department of Public Instruction administers
a small state Head Start supplement. The new Head Start Collaboration position
will be placed within the Division of Economic Support in DWD.
|
|
|
Table 3
Social Welfare Spending
for Families with Children in Wisconsin, State Fiscal Year 1995 (unless
otherwise noted)
|
|
Program
|
$
in millions |
|
Federal |
State/
Local |
Total |
|
|
Spending per
Poor Familya |
|
Wisconsin
|
United
States
|
|
|
Income
Security
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
AFDC
Benefitsb
|
$232.9 |
$156.5 |
$389.4 |
–11.7% |
$1,107 |
$851 |
AFDC
Administrationc
|
43.0 |
42.6 |
85.6 |
84.8 |
243
|
136 |
SSI
for Childrend
|
|
|
118.9
|
24.6
|
338 |
184 |
EITC
Federale
|
322.1 |
|
322.1 |
76.4 |
916 |
1,010 |
EIC
Statef
|
|
49.8 |
|
|
142 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Food
Security |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Food
Stampsg |
191.8 |
|
191.8 |
0.0
|
545 |
711 |
Child
Nutritionh |
125.5 |
|
125.5 |
–12.7 |
357 |
344 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Education
and Training |
|
|
|
|
|
|
JOBSi
|
29.7 |
18.2 |
47.9 |
41.1
|
136 |
59 |
JTPAj
|
22.8 |
|
22.8
|
–27.3 |
65 |
73 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Child
Care/Development |
|
|
|
|
|
|
AFDCk
|
18.7 |
12.6 |
31.3 |
77.4 |
89 |
61 |
At-Riskl
|
5.8 |
3.9 |
9.7 |
–0.9 |
27 |
20 |
CCDBGm
|
14.0 |
|
14.0 |
0.5 |
40 |
34 |
Head
Startm |
52.6 |
|
52.6 |
28.5 |
150 |
117 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Child
Support Enforcementn
|
50.8 |
19.4 |
70.2
|
50.8
|
200 |
115 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Child
Welfare |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Child
Protection/FamilyPres |
7.9 |
2.6 |
10.6 |
31.3 |
30 |
22 |
Foster
Care |
45.0 |
37.8 |
82.7 |
5.2 |
235 |
222 |
Adoption
Assistance |
9.1 |
6.1 |
15.2 |
48.6 |
43 |
29 |
Other
|
1.6 |
|
1.6 |
–2.5 |
4 |
3 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
IV-A
Emergency Assistanceo |
1.7 |
1.7 |
3.4 |
6.0 |
10 |
124 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Health |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Medicaid,
children onlyp |
271.5 |
182.5 |
454.0 |
31.3 |
1,291 |
984 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a. Spending on each item divided by the number
of poor persons in families with children. The number of poor was estimated
using the average poverty rate for persons in families with children for 1993–1995
(derived from three years of the Current Population Survey).
b. ACF-231 Line by Line Report, Administration
for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
c. ACF-231 Line by Line Report, Administration
for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Figure
includes administrative costs for child care (except At-Risk), work programs,
automated data processing (ADP), FAMIS ( a management information system), fraud
control, Systemic Alien Verification for Entitlements (SAVE), and other state
and local expenses.
d. Urban Institute estimates derived from data
published in Children Receiving SSI (June 1993, December 1993, June 1995, December
1995), Office of Research, evaluation, and Statistics, Social Security Administration.
Spending is for the calendar year, estimated based on spending in June and December
of each year. Includes federal spending and state supplements for states in
which the state supplement is federally administered.
e. Statistics of Income Bulletin (Spring 1997 and
Spring 1995), Internal Revenue Service.
f. Information collected by the Urban Institute
from state budget documents.
g. Urban Institute tabulations based on Food Stamp
Quality Control data and tabulations by Food and Consumer Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture. Includes benefit payments only, not administrative costs. Estimates
are derived by multiplying actual benefit spending in each state by the estimated
proportion of spending for households with children in each state.
h. Budget Information for the States, Budget of
the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal Year 1995, Office
of Management and Budget. Includes federal spending for WIC, school lunches,
and school breakfasts, plus federal obligations for the Child and Adult Care
Food Program and the Summer Food Service for Children.
i. Urban Institute tabulations based on data reported
on forms FSA-331 and ACF-332, Administration for Children and Families, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services. Total spending (combined federal and
state) is average monthly expenditures multiplied by 12. The federal and state
shares for 1995 were estimated based on the match rates for various components
of JOBS spending for federal obligations in the fiscal year.
j. Budget Information for the States, Budget of
the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal Year 1995, Office
of Management and Budget. Includes federal obligations to states for JTPA spending
under Title II-A (disadvantaged adults),Title II-B (summer youth), and Title
II-C (youth training). Federal obligations to states may differ from actual
spending.
k. ACF-231 Line by Line Report, Administration
for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Includes
both regular AFDC and transitional child care. Administrative costs are included
with AFDC administration.
l. ACF-231 Line by Line Report, Administration
for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
m. Budget Information for the States, Budget of
the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal Year 1995, Office
of Management and Budget. Data are federal obligations, which may differ from
actual spending.
n. Form OCSE-131, Office of Child Support Enforcement,
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
o. ACF-231 Line by Line Report, Administration
for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
p. Urban Institute calculations based on data reported
on forms HCFA-64 and HCFA-2082, Health Care Financing Administration, U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services. Expenditure data are for benefits only and do
not include Disproportionate Share Hospital payments, administrative costs,
accounting adjustments, or the U.S. Territories.
About the Authors
Kristin S. Seefeldt
is a research associate at the University of Michigan's Program on Poverty and
Social Welfare Policy. Her research interests are welfare and employment and
training policy, and she has coauthored many reports on these topics. Most recently,
she has focused on Michigan's welfare reforms and has coauthored Project Zero:
The View from the Sites and Moving toward a Vision of Family Independence: Local
Managers' Views of Michigan's Welfare Reforms as well as the Michigan income
security report for the Urban Institute's Assessing the New Federalism series.
Laura K. Kaye is an independent public policy consultant in Washington,
D.C., who was one of the authors of the Wisconsin Works (W-2) welfare reform
replacement program. As director of the Madison, Wis., office of the Hudson
Institute, she also helped Wisconsin prepare for W-2 implementation and evaluation.
More recently, Ms. Kaye has written extensively on the W-2 program, particularly
exploring alternative policy options, as a research fellow in the Washington,
D.C., office of the Hudson Institute. Her areas of special interest include
child care, barriers to employment, privatization, and contracting for social
services.
Christopher Botsko is a policy associate with Health Systems Research,
Inc., in Washington, D.C. He is currently involved in studies of how states
are implementing the Food Stamp provisions of the welfare reform bill. He is
a coauthor of State Food Stamp Policy Choices under Welfare Reform, a report
produced for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. From 1995 to 1997, he was a
research analyst at Child Trends, Inc., where he worked on studies of how welfare
reform is affecting children. He recently coauthored a policy brief on the potential
implications of welfare reform for children for the Assessing the New Federalism
series.
Pamela A. Holcomb is a senior research associate at the Urban Institute.
Her work focuses on program operations and service delivery, particularly as
they relate to welfare reform, employment and training, and social services.
She was the leader of the Wisconsin case study team.
Kimura Flores was formerly a research associate at the Urban Institute.
Prior to coming to the Institute, she worked on the California state budget
for the California Assembly Ways and Means Committee and more recently advised
the chief financial officer of the District of Columbia.
Carla Herbig, a former research associate and current consultant at
the Urban Institute, has focused her research on housing for the disadvantaged
and special populations.
Karen C. Tumlin
is a research associate in the Urban Institute's Population Studies Center.
Her special interests are immigrant policy and child welfare. As a part of the
Assessing the New Federalism project, she is conducting a study of state policy
choices regarding restrictions on immigrants' eligibility under the federal
welfare reform laws.